Encouraging Diverse Enrollment in Womens Studies Courses :: Essays Papers

Encouraging Diverse Enrollment in Womens Studies Courses What stands in the way of a more diversity in Womens Studies classes such as Feminism 101? The posing of this question is in and of itself a step to increasing diversity, for in the answers we find, we may also set off solutions to these roadblocks. I will therefore, be discussing causes of the current white, female, young, middle-class, and non-disabled majority in Womens Studies class rosters. Once Ive established what is causing a majority to be present, I will then attempt to answer those problems with possible solutions, or at least steps in the right direction.Cross-racial hostility keeps minority races from interacting effectively with each other. Racism in general separates the white libber community from everyone else. Internalized sexism tells us that we argon just women, prone to bickering and infighting, and it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. Heterosexism and lesbian bating (accusing a woman of being a le sbian if she is separate and freethinking) keep potential womens studies students far away from our classrooms. Everyone is held back by the labels which separate us. Now I dont agree that these are the only autocratic forces dividing the feminist population and keeping new people from joining, but I would postulate that these conflicts function the same in Womens Studies as they do in the feminist movement in general. These are the central expressions of oppression that manufacture cohesive, equal, cooperation seem beyond our grasp.bell hooks, a black feminist writer, wrote in her book Feminist Theory From Margin to Center, Women in lower-class and deplorable groups, particularly those who are non-white, would not have defined womens firing off as women gaining accessible equality with men, since they are continually reminded in their unremarkable lives that all women do not share a common social status. (19).This passage contains they key that answers the question of why p eople of color in are not represented equally in our womens studies classes with white people. Because Womens Studies (and Feminism) had been paradiddle as the arena of white women, who had the time and money to start the movement, women of color are less likely to think the classes are relevant to them. And they are overwhelmingly female. How then, armed with our understanding of this problem, can we get a more racially diverse student body interested in what Womens Studies has to shot?

Computer Maintenance Agency’s Organizational chart Essay

I dupe worked in a private governing called as Computer keep Agency (CMA) as a junior node engineer for a period of one year. CMA is linked with a government organization called as National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC). NRSC is popularly known as wing of Indian space research organization. CMA chief(prenominal)ly works with intercommunicate maintenance and system administration by signing an annual ask with NRSC. The CMA organization consists of director, customer support manager, team leaders and engineers. For every both years, NRSC invites the tenders for annual contract maintenance services for their system administrations and lucre maintenances. My organization, CMA actively participates in the tenders and prepares a low quotation for getting the tender contract. The director is mainly responsible for taking the decisions on the tenders and organizes the company policies in a systematic manner.The customer support manager is the one who helps the director in estimating a suitable quotation for the tenders and informs the director about the tender handling process. The customer support manager responsibilities take customer satisfaction, recruiting and training the employees, implementing the organization strategic policies, resolving problems and monitoring the objectives of tenders. The team leaders under the customer support manager work with the clients of different partition offs, typically three orders (zone1, zone 2 and zone 3). The zone 1 is known as NRSC selective information Center, the zone 2 is known as NRSC Data Processing and the zone 3 is known as NRSC Software Division. The team leader of a particular zone consists of a set of engineers who were divided as elder customer engineers and junior customer engineers.The team leader job duties include reporting the technical issues to the customer support manager, leading and motivating the engineers, bring in the daily work performance and providing the feedback to the customer supp ort manager. The engineers under a team leader works on issues like system administration, network issues, troubleshooting problems, and hardware and software issues.The engineers will have a direct nexus with the clients through web application. The whole organization performance and progress depends upon the power of the engineers. Failure in the performance of the engineers may lead to the organization loss. The main internal problems in CMA include the organization budget issues, system performance, escape of communication between the senior customer engineers and the junior customer engineers, and broadly time management issues.

Theater Arts

Sitting in Limbo is a tackle create verbally by Dawn Penso and Judith Hepburn who are both(prenominal) Jamaican nationals living in London, the play was directed by Jo-Ann McCabe. Sitting in Limbo was held at the University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus, Errol Barrow Centre for Creative whim in the Walcott Warner Theater. The moon reading featured a trio of Barbadian actors Amanda Cumerbatch as Yvonne Campbell, Philip Eno as the judge and radio announcer and finally Loretta Hackett as Nita George, on Monday 25th February 2013.The theatrical frame starts out with a contrast among two women, adept of a fairly wealthy background and the other(a) struggling to make ends meet this portrays a conflict between both women based on their differences which in the end both women overcame. The play some a prison warden, Nita George and prisoner Yvonne Campbell depicts a political disruption in Grenadas annals which led to the imprisonment of Grenadian Phllis Coard.Immured along wi th her maintain for assassinating Grenadas elected Prime Minister, Nita presumes that Yvonne is a greedy woman with a thirst for predominance and that she is the main reason behind all the troubles in Grenada due to her pushing her husband into the overthrow of the Prime Minister. Nita openly affronts Yvonne, man Yvonne demands that she be respected beca example of her position in society and the success she has brought upon the country.Two years had passed and Nitas views roughly Yvonne hadnt changed nevertheless as the years went by for a total of seven years and they both opened up to each other and adapted to each others personalities Nita precept Yvonne as a woman with humanity and compassion. Although the play is mainly about the two characters Nita and Yvonne, the radio announcer plays a in truth important role, he notifies the auditory modality about the amount of years passed and the fate of Grenada, the radio announcer practically gives viewing auditory modality a n idea of what was going on during the play.The trio has done an exceptionally smashing job on the piece Sitting in Limbo. The use of accents added a great effect on the nationality of the characters or the origin where the disaster was being taken place. The use of costume was also great because one could identify which character was which , when Nita or Loretta wore the khaki shirt and the khaki knee breeches it gave the audience a hint that she was some sort of guard or officer or in this case a prison warden.In Philips case the use of headphones gave the audience an idea that he was a Dj or a radio announcer. The use of the projection of bars gave the audience an idea that it was some kind of prison. The bars also reflected on how each woman felt inside, Nita trying to raise a family by herself in the economic struggles felt put behind bars because she wanted to live a give out life, she wanted to reach for her goals but she could not do so because of the underway situatio n but eventually broke free and decided to take back the offer her sister had given her.Yvonne although imprisoned literally felt imprisoned due to the fact that deep down inside she knew what she did was wrong but her arrogance and pride got in the way ,she broke free by refusing to sign a contract which could have literally freed her by denying everything she had truly done. However they were some minor imperfections which were indeed noticeable, such as the reenforcement of the audience, Phillip walking offstage before the go along had actually begun and where Loretta and Amanda had somewhat bury a bit of their lines.There were also some technical difficulties where as the fade would begin as well early or a little too late but they but did not affect the theatrical piece it self. The play was a unique piece especially because it was my first magazine viewing a moon read play and because they tied in a fictional crisis into a play which I found very creative. The play also i mpacted the audience and made it an enjoyable play for them.

Classroom Observation Reflective Summary Essay

Throughout my partitioning lectures and discussions in galore(postnominal) of my physical bodyes, I recall one of my professors accenting the fact that instructors train to be flexible in their roll and need to conform to the changes that ar associated with the c atomic number 18er. Upon hearing this, I didnt accept this fact she was giving me and never associated the term, instructor and flexible together. Nevertheless, after my observations this semester in the conditionroom, I understand why you need to be flexible in the inform profession. E rattling class I observed this semester was dissimilar from each other. Some classs harbored students who comprehended the material better, were ethnically diverse, special education, motivated and lazy students. distributively time I observed, there were particular occasions that I had anticipate to occur and other instances that I was astounded. I found it intriguing to suffer how the teacher responded when something in the cl assroom did not go as think and then observe them trying to not let it affect their teaching think for the day. After my observations, I am self-assured and avid that I want to become a teacher and willing be a expert one at that. As a teacher, I mean you need to set the tone of the classroom and let them know that you are in control.The medium or atmosphere of the classroom needs to be accepting and eager to learn. All of the classes that I observed had great classroom atmospheres. By saying great classroom atmospheres, I mean that virtually of the students were attentive to the teacher, eager to learn, asking questions and that no one person in the class was omitted from the class discussion or the learning of that particular day. existence the student observer, I was curious to see how the students would act toward me and turn to me in their class. Infrequently, I caught a couple gawks during instruction from prying students. For the most part, I was much embraced in thei r classrooms, as they frequently asked me questions about their school work or of me in general. I remember my first observations, I was very nervous upon entering the classroom. After that day I everlastingly felt comfortable in the classroom. During my observations, I never saw the teacher leave any students out of the lecture that they taught to their students that day. I was very move to see that no students were neglected, but instead were incorporated into the learning plan for that day and got a chance to ask questions of the teacher to help notwithstanding their learning.Throughout my time in the classrooms with different teachers, I observed many different lessons that each teacher was teaching to the students. Some of the lessons included day-to-day math skills, reading tasks, and working together at recess to hand over a dog. One of the most important aspects of being a teacher is having a good teacher-student interaction. All of the classes I observed had a good interaction between the students and teachers. As a future educator, I bank my biggest challenge will be trying to become flexible with my schedule and trying to motivate each student to learn and be industrious in class. Much of this depends on where I will be teaching, whether that is urban, rural, or city. Ill address these challenges by becoming more organized and doing projects where federation is labeld and required, so then each student will be learning and never feel left out.My strengths include being very determined, goal driven, hard working, learning, good people skills and motivating others. I will use these strengths to the best of my ability when I have my own class in the future. I want to continue with my teaching and learning border and obtain my teaching certificate in the near future. After find this semester, I realized that I would like to work with 5th grade students because I think I would respond better to them. These observations were very arouse an d helped me better appreciate the teaching profession.

What is a monopoly and what is required

Monopoly is at the opposite end of the spectrum of market models from consummate(a) rivalry. A monopoly firm has no rivals. It is the unaccompanied firm in its industry. thither ar no close substitutes for the good or service a monopoly produces. Not only does a monopoly firm have the market to itself, only it also need non worry ab away other firms entering. In the case of monopoly, entry by potential rivals is prohibitively difficult. A monopoly does not take the market price as given it determines its own price.It selects from its requirement curve the price that corresponds to the quantity the firm has hosen to produce in fix up to earn the maximum profit possible. In assuming thither is ace firm in a market, we assume there argon no other firms producing goods or services that could be considered part of the same market as that of the monopoly firm. The result is a model that gives us important insights into the disposition of the choices of firms and their impact on the economy. There are some Advantages of a Monopoly. The Monopolies avoids duplications and thusly wastage of resources.Enjoys economics of scale, due to it being the only supplier of the product or service n the market, makes many profits and be practice sessiond for query and development to maintain their status as a monopoly. They also use price discrimination to benefit the weaker economic section of society. To avoid competition, they posterior afford to invest in the latest technology and machinery. There are some Disadvantages of a Monopoly. Monopolies have poor levels of service, there is no consumer sovereignty, the consumers are charged high prices for such low quality goods, and lack of competition could lead to low quality goods, as well as out dated goods.First off, any arket type can see super conventionality profits in the short-run. What is more important is what happens in the end. Pure monopolies are not the only monopoly that can make profits. Natural Monopol y or a price discriminating monopoly can make profits as well. The only difference between them is why they are monopolies to begin with. Oligopolies are not monopolies, although they do tend to make above normal profits. Monopolistic competition does not yield these types of profits in the end. Economic profit goes to zero here in the end because there is a lack of barriers here to stay fresh competition from entering.

Essay on A Literary Report on “The Nightingale and The Rose” By Oscar Wilde

Nineteenth Century poor Stories is a collection of tales from the nineteen hund chromaticdishs. This essay will concentrate on just matchless of these stories. It will include a thorough summary of the paper including my views and opinions towards the language, imagery and setting that the author uses. The story I become chosen to analyse is The Nightingale and the Rose, by Oscar Wilde. This is one of mevery childrens stories that he wrote, as he is well kn ingest to have used the stimulate of fairy tale to reflect on modern life and to indicate ideas. The Nightingale and the Rose is a very poignant story following the ascendant of love.The theme is buzz offed in this story through the actions of the Nightingale. It demonstrates how one life would consecrate itself in order to make another glad. From the Nightingales demo of view, this is a tragi invitey ironic story. For she thinks that the disciple must be a true lover she thinks that he would give anything for one ni ght with the Professors daughter. She said that she would dance with me if I brought her bolshy come ups yet for want of a red rose is my life make wretched, the Nightingale hears him cry and on this evidence alone she bases her opinion hither at last is a true lover. When in fact the save feelings the Student has for the Professors daughter are those of material love. He is only enkindle in her beauty. He says to himself She has form that cannot be denied to her but then he says She would not sacrifice herself for others, which is exactly what the Nightingale is ab expose to do for him. She is volition to sacrifice her life for love for the Student to be able to dismiss one night with the girl he supposedly admires. An interesting point to note is when the Student mentions that the Professors daughter has some beautiful notes in her voice.What a pity it is that they do not mean anything, or do any practical good. Now Nightingales are renowned for having beautiful voices, bu t the Student does not appreciate the wonderful art of medicament. A few paragraphs before these lines the Nightingale sings to the Student telling him of how she intends to sacrifice her life for him be happy you sh completely have your red rose. I will build it out of music by moonlight, and stain it with my own hearts-blood. Although he cannot understand them, these words are, in fact, deeply meaningful to the Student.And as for music doing no practical good, well, what would you call the outcome of the red rose? The Nightingale died and the rose was born. Music do that red rose. The Student does not realise how wrong his judgements are. We find out that the only true lover was in fact the Nightingale. She was the only one with dear feelings, and she was prepared to sacrifice her life for those feelings, even though she knew she would not do good anything from it. The fact that she was doing it for love, and that she was making someone happy, was enough for her. She was rea lly the only one who deserved love the only one worthy of it.The Nightingale was love. She went to the superlative extremes to find a red rose for the Student to give to the Professors daughter. She flew all around the garden trying to find a red rose. She flew to the concentrate of the grass-plot, and round the old sun-dial, and finally beneath the Students window, where she eventually found a red rose tree. But the tree was damaged, and would not bear a red rose. the only way the Nightingale could obtain a red rose from this tree, would be to build it out of music by moonlight, and stain it with her own hearts-blood and that is what she did.The story is set in a garden of fantasy it is estimable of talking creatures and trees not unlike the Garden of Eden in the Bible, which had a talking snake. Perhaps the author used a garden because in the Bible it is very symbolic, and its story has many lessons and meanings. Maybe that was what Oscar Wilde was trying to convey in his wri ting. Although this story was meant as a fairy tale for children, it contained a large range of vocabulary and many detailed descriptions suggesting that perhaps the story was actually aimed at adults, but

Equality in Harrison Bergeron Essay

Kurt Vonneguts short story Harrison Bergeron is set in the future (2081), when the governing body has purportedly made everyone equal. The people of this era are strained equal by technology. These people are denied laissez faire, and the governments have taken their freedom by enforcing laws. Vonneguts story is a satire because the society he depicts is not real equal, but rather a undemocratic regime under the stalking-horse of compare. I will examine how Vonnegut seems to be accuseing that in such a society, the government gains too much control and people gradually tolerate their individuality.In Vonneguts story, everybody was finally equal. They werent only equal out front God and the law. They were equal in every which way. So how does this differ from the equality we enjoy in our current society? Vonnegut goes on to explain that, in such a society, equality means that nobody was smarter than anybody else. Nobody was intermit looking than anybody else. Nobody was stronger or quicker than anybody else. But how would this be uniformly if every human being is born differently?The government forces citizens to unwrap different levels of handicap devices according to their differing abilities. For example, a handicap radio is forced on anyone considered smart, a mask is forced on anyone considered beautiful, and heavy bags honorable of birdshots are forced on anyone considered strong. All these rules are enforced by the 211th, 212th, and 213th Amendments to the Constitution, and the unceasing vigilance of agents of the United States Handicapper General. However, this also implicates that equality is not actually achieved because the Handicapper General is evidently not restricted in the same manner. In fact, the Handicapper General, which seems to represent the government, controls the disembodied spirit of citizens. People like George might possess intelligent thoughts such as maybe dancers shouldnt be handicapped. However, these thoughts might undermine the Handicapper Generals power, so the handicap radio works every twenty seconds or so to keep people like George from taking unfair advantage of their brains. Georges son Harrison Bergeron, who according to the news channel is a genius and an athlete, is regarded as extremely dangerous. After Harrison escapes from jail under-handicapped, he is quickly tracked follow through by authorities and shot by the Handicapper General herself. Vonnegut seems to imply that ironically, power are in the hands of only a hardly a(prenominal) people under the pretense of equality, and that extraordinary people has no dress to live in such an authoritarian society. Controlled by the government, citizens also escape their individuality. Masks are worn so beauty is hidden.When George and hazel tree were watching ballerinas on the television, the ballerinas faces were masked, so that no one, seeing a free and graceful movement or a pretty face, would feel like something the cat medicine in. Moreover, people who are strong have to wear weights on their bodies. George had a forty-seven pounds of birdshot in a canvas bag, which was padlocked around his neck, which even Hazel finds pitying. Even voices are controlled. Reading a bulletin, a ballerina had to excuse at once for her voice because her actual voice was a warm, luminous, and sempiternal melody.Therefore, people in this society lose their individuality and humanity. Vonnegut seems to imply that the government intrudes the everyday lives of citizens under the pretense of equality, just like the communist totalitarian regime of Mao Ze Dong in China. Vonnegut seems to think that equality in the sense of eliminating individual differences would never work. If the government forced handicaps on expert people, how could we improve our society? Creative thinkers wouldnt be able to pass up with new ideas, technology development would stagnate and the quality of life would deteriorate.Suppose there werent a nybody capable of inventing the mobile phone, how would contact your friends and family on the road? In conclusion, Harrison Bergeron portrays how people can potentially lose their individuality and unwillingly accept totalitarian control under the pretense of equality. Vonnegut wants to chasten us about how dangerous such a society is and how the inappropriate usage of equality is fatal for the human race. We should never sacrifice individuality for equality

Conditioning and Mind Control Essay

An chromaticness, a Tomato, and Mind Control A similitude between Anthony Burgess A Clockwork orangish Jonathan Demmes The Manchurian expectation and George Orwells 1984 in relation to genius concur and human mark off. Mr. Robinson ENG 4U Nykki Armstrong January 10. 13 The greater the male monarch, the more dangerous the corrupt Edmund Burke Muammar Gaddafi, Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler whole give air oneness vital thing in common these men all in all had an overwhelming greed for power and fake.It was through fear and subtle conditioning that they won their power, and it was at the height of their power that the societies they had oppressed rebelled. Just as Edmund Burke says the greater the power the more dangerous the ab spend, it was their abuse of power that led to their demise. This estimate of how achieving complete power over golf club and the individuals therein through conditioning can non last forever, and will inevit able-bodied race to a mutiny and retaliation is explored by the novels 1984 by George Orwell and A Clockwork orangeness tree by Anthony Burgess, as well Jonathan Demmes film The Manchurian expectation.Both A Clockwork Orange and The Manchurian Candidate develop this melodic theme through the use of an unlikely anti-hero (who is also the spokesperson for the authority attempting to gain control), the individual beat to main(prenominal)tain the roughly basic control (while the authority counters their every travail), and the juxtaposing symbols (that mirror how inn is violating the inbred severalise). In Burgess novel the protagonist, Alex, is a usual delinquent he breaks any and all rules without any concern for the repercussions.Naturally, the reader comes to dislike him. Unexpectedly though, Burgess makes the reader feel Pathos for Alex, as he becomes a test subject for the governments mod Ludovico Technique. In an attempt to rid the streets of teenagers like Alex, they select him macrocosm the chastise of them all to become their spokesman of sorts. The doctors involved in his treatment go to utmost(prenominal) lengths to rid him of any qualities they have deemed unacceptable in a perfective tense society.The beginnings of their treatment seems to mimic the basis of Skinners operant conditioning, although they prosecute things many steps farther than he could, Skinner employed penalty in one early experiment and was so disturbed that he never employ it again, whereas the doctors in A Clockwork Orange do anything they feel necessary (Freedman). The doctors turn his every action against him, and cause him patently endless genial anguish, ultimately conditioning him to conform to essentially anything they decide. The cast of the government backfires as soon as they release him.Once society has seen what the government has done, they vehemently reject the idea. After this, societys view of Alex changes drastically he switches from a fearsome troublemaker to a fragi le victim Another victimA victim of the modern age (Burgess 113). This idea of society and the individuals therein rejecting the controversial plans of their government is also popular in the film The Manchurian Candidate. In an attempt to gain all the political power, Sergeant Raymond Prentiss Shaw has his mind controlled by high authorities.Due to his own ideology, without beingness down the stairs anyones control, Sergeant Shaw would be an ideal presidential candidate, but he would be an independent one, I believe in freedom(The Manchurian Candidate). The people of power in the film believe that in order to achieve a perfect utopia, they must govern everything. When presented with the idea that his thoughts may not be his own, Sergeant Shaw is in disbelief, and thus begins the viewers idea of him as a protagonist. Similarly to Alex in A Clockwork Orange he begins an internal fight down to overcome the conditioning and mind control that has been imposed on him.At the end of the film, he successfully overpowers the control that was being held over him, and rebels against it. It is his rebellion that causes the entire plan to fail, thus making him a victimised anti-hero in the same sense as Alex. Contrastingly to some(prenominal) Alex and Sergeant Shaw, the protagonist in Orwells 1984 does not become a hero at all. While he does struggle to gain power and the most basic control over his life, Winston does not succeed. Rather than being the force to overthrow the corrupt and suppressive society in which he ives, he becomes yet other powerless victim. In this sense, he mirrors both(prenominal) Alex and Sergeant Shaw they are all powerless against their oppressors. The key flaw in the strategies of the government in both A Clockwork Orange and The Manchurian Candidate is that they explicitly tried to condition their subjects victimization physical and intimidation processes. The savvy that Big Brother in 1984 was so successful in oppressing virtually everyone is that they did their controlling more implicitly through reality control, and by coercing the citizens to condition themselves.They began using a Hitler-like control method turning everyone against each(prenominal) other to guarantee that no one will help anyone. The society in 1984 is a mob mentality everyone is so caught up in the moment that they do not dare counter the group, Of course he chanted with the rest during the two minutes hate it was impossible to do other than to do what everyone else was doing, was an instinctive reaction (Orwell 19). It is through the events that victimised him that Sergeant Raymond Shaw begins to read his own thoughts and his unclear past.Once he begins to question specific aspects of his life much(prenominal) as the events that occurred while he was at war he is able to discover what is really going on. In order for him to be controlled, a specific line must be recited. When Sergeant Shaw is aware of how his mind is being control led, he is able to attempt to fight it. This is depicting his mental struggle to maintain control over himself. At one point, Rosie, a woman affiliated with Sergeant Shaws platoon-mate says Maybe I was whim fragile at the time (The Manchurian Candidate).This line encapsulates the underlying theme throughout the entire movie the discreetness of the human psyche, especially when one is out of control of themselves. It is Sergeant Shaws battle to overcome this fragility that leads to his eventual rebellion. This fragility is mimicked by Alex in Burgess novel, through Alexs reaction his life and his struggle to maintain his personality while undergoing the Ludovico Treatment. Alex views himself as a leader, and therefore he must conserve that powerful role in his gang to continue to have his sense of self.When that power is jeopardise by George, Alexs preservation instinct is triggered and he physically fights to find oneself the order that had previously been established Now were back to where we were, yes? (Burgess 42). This struggle to cope with a change of power is also seen during his stay in the Ludovico Treatment center when he realizes he has been conditioned, You are being do sane, you are being made healthy That I will not havenor can I understand at all (Burgess 81). When all power has been taken by the higher authority, Alex has been turned into something other than a human being (Burgess 115).This sense of dehumanising a person coincides with the theme of countering the natural order to gain ultimate power shown through the symbols used in Burgess novel. One of the key symbols is that of the clockwork orange. Creating a clockwork orange is to completely stamp out all that is natural about it, thus ruining it, in an effort to create something controllable and mechanised. Bruce Olsen states in his analysis of the novel that a clockwork orange applies to the conditioned Alex as well Though he appears natural from the outside, he is thoroughly un natural within.This statement becomes a theme in both the novel and the movie The Manchurian Candidate. Another symbol is van Beethovens Ninth Symphony which is a peaceful song, and for Alex, the only way to feel appropriate emotions. During the Ludovico Treatment, the song is used against him in order to condition him again, taking something beloved and natural and making it evil, Using Ludwig like that and I was really sick (Burgess 85). Another reoccurring symbol is that of water. Water is typically associated with reformation and life, which is how it is portrayed in Burgess novel.Alex imagines his body being like emptied of as it might be dirty water and then filled up again with clean, symbolizing his new start after his rebellion against his oppressors (Burgess 127). Another piece of literature in which water is used to serve away sins and aid in the renewal process is Shakespeares Macbeth. The main instance in which the symbol of water is used for cleansing the eldritch body is when Lady Macbeth is attempting to wash the blood from her hands in her sleep. exchangeable Alex, she realizes it makes her impure and yearns for an opportunity to remove it from her body and mind.Water is also a prevalent symbol in The Manchurian Candidate. Unlike in A Clockwork Orange the water in the film is juxtaposing its typical meaning. In the film, Sergeant Shaw kills his antagonist in the lake. Clearly, murder is unnatural and for Sergeant Shaw, as is the case for most people, it is unthinkable. Unthinkable that is, until the authority controlling him tells him otherwise. This illustrates the complete control held over him by whoever is dictating his actions, leaving him with no power of choice any longer (Burgess 115).Coinciding with the clockwork orange radical in Burgess novel, there is a tomato motif in Demmes film. Likewise to an orange, a tomato is natural. In the film, it is used for testing to reconfigure genetics and implantation of memories. The governm ent plans on taking something natural, and using it for their own awful needs in their quest for ultimate power. Finally, though it is natural to want basic control and power over oneself, violating another individual or societys right to that same control will have dire consequences.As seen through Burgess A Clockwork Orange, Demmes The Manchurian Candidate, and Orwells 1984, oppression and gross abuses of power will in the long run lead to the destruction of said power and the rebellion of the oppressed. Referencing what Edmund Burke is quoted as saying above, any large amount of power will eventually cause greed and destruction. Burgess and Demme use the archetypal anti-hero, the internal battle within that hero, and the reoccurring symbols to explore that theme of the destruction caused by misused power, whereas Orwell offers the choice succumbing to the power, and accepting a total loss of control.Works Cited Burgess, Anthony. A Clockwork Orange. capital of the United Kingdo m Penguin Books, 1972. Print. Orwell, George. 1984. London Penguin Books, 1987. Print. Demme, Jonathan, dir. The Manchurian Candidate. 2004. Paramount Pictures. DVD-ROM. Olsen, Bruce. A Clockwork Orange. Masterplots, Fourth Edition(2010). Journal. Freedman, David H. The Perfected Self. Atlantic MonthlyJune 2012 42-52. Literary Reference Center. Web. 9 Jan. 2013. .

Armed forces Essay

This slit pass ons in make wateration on the soldiers, sailors and airman who gained, maintained and then lost an imperium. It mustiness be remembered that the vast majority of the empires armament men was recruited from come on ramp the bewilder untaught. It is interesting to n sensation that some of the uncutst resistors to the British went on to break down the staunchest completelyies and defenders of her empire Highlanders, Sikhs and Gurkhas are perhaps the best examples of this phenomena.The soldiery history of the empire is rich in colour and variety tho is alike inevitably linked to the darker and more(prenominal) than sinister human face of the empire through conquest, pacification and destruction. The tentacles of the military spread throughout the empire and beyond, the build up forces were not completely the conquerors and defenders of the empire merely as well as provided the garrisons that policed the vast expanses of filth and enabled communic ation both over the vast distances involved. The military was precise oft judgment of convictions the nearly important institution of the empire.Land forces Infan bear witnessThe historic period nigh 1783 were degraded ones for the phalanx and things were slightly to become even more difficult in the near future. The military was coming to the end of its actions in the 13 colonies. governmental and military defeat hung heavily over Britain at the time. The army had borne the brunt of the sunk campaign and so were associated with the failure. lifetime was to become even more sedate and precarious for the British army as it become embroiled in the highly difficult task of containing the blowup of Revolutionary and then short sleepic France. The army would therefore be forced to expand to an unusu wholey tremendous sizing and would be strained to its limits. The prominent role played by the British army in ultimately defeating Napoleon would restore its felicitate a nd prestige both(prenominal) at home and overseas.In the rate of flow future(a) victory in 1815, the British army was regarded as the fire group of the Empire universe sent to wher forever there were disturbances or problems. It would become involved in countless sm tout ensemble wars in remote flung corners of the globe, virtually of which would be advantageful endeavours. However, the army would be sorely tested by the events of the Crimean war and the Indian mutiny. The problems encountered in these actions provided the rationale for the Cardwell army reforms which were implemented more and more from the tardily 1860s to the early 1880s.The military issueing system used by the British army in order to determine precedence was front roughly used in 1751. The year 1782 is interesting because it is the start-off time that legion(predicate) of these regiments were associated with a specific topical anesthetic area. Theoretically, this was to be where their depot was t o be ground and their recruiting to take over place. However, constant strategical and manpower needs meant that these regiments could be post bothwhere and were keen to take recruits from wherever they could find them. In this period of history, the numbers were the more important of the desig populations and would be used on a day to day basis. However, the territorial titles would later form the basis of the side by side(p) major overhaul of the regimental system almost exactly degree Celsius years later the Cardwell Army reforms.fundament guardsNumberTitleinitiatoryThe First Regiment of Foot Guards2ndThe gage (Cold stream) Regiment of Foot Guards3rdHis Majesties Third Regiment of Foot GuardscavalryFirst troop of life guards dismalgeNicknamesThe BangersLumpersThe CheesemongersThe Fly-slicersThe Piccadilly ButchersThe Roast and BoiledThe Ticky TinsThe Tin BelliesThe Patent Safeties proverbHoni soit qui mal y penseEvil be to him who evil thinksRegimental MarchesMillanollo (Q uick)Val HammThe Life Guards Slow March (Slow)Regimental AnniversaryWaterloo Day 18th JuneColonels1660 1788Soldiers1660 1788 advantageor Units1st Life Guards(1660 1788)The Life Guards(1922 )Suggested ReadingHistory of the Household Cavalryby Sir George Arthur(Constable 1909, 1926 3 vols)The Story of the First Life Guards(Harrap 1922)Historical unload of the Life Guards(capital of the United Kingdom Clowes 1836)Regimental MuseumHousehold Cavalry MuseumCombermere BarracksWindsorMore go tohttp//www.btinternet.com/britishempire/empire/forces/armyunits/britishcavalry/1sttroopofhorseguards.htmlArtilleryHorse artillery bombardment Sergeant-MajorThe some other picture of the seal battery Sergeant-major is a coloured engraving from a photo. He has gold braiding. The screen end of a 12-pounder is accurately shown.Officer 1890The Officer is in well(p) dress on his charger.Sergeants with 12 PounderThe Sergeants are in unhomogeneous forms of dress. The one in the forground is in full dress or exhibition dress, the others are in different combi peoples of working dress.Mounted SergeantThe gold cord braiding on his jacket indicates that he is a Sergeant.F Battery in Second Afghan struggleScience and engineering jinxRailwaysThe ordinal century saw many technological changes, save none of them were to have as wide repurcussions as the invention of the train. The power of travel had been known for some time alone applying this power to moving flagitious legals and people over long distances was one application that would have level-headed consequences and serve the British and their Empire for well over a one hundred years.It was George Stephenson who realised the full power and potency of the steam engine when he designed a machine that could take prefer of narrow tomentum tubes which could be heated to create the all important steam power. The uprise was the first such steam engine to take advantage of this hot engineering as it operated between Li verpool and Manchester from 1830. However, technical change was to become quick and the train was to change its appearance and technical specifications again and again.Inevitably, it was the mother sphere that first saw her landscape transformed by this unfermentedfangled invention. Navvies from Ireland, Scotland and the northwestern of England scarred the landscape with viaducts, link up and tunnels in the pursuit of the smooth gradients that trains compulsory to travel at their most efficient level. They were paid a pittance for anguish and dangerous work. In many ways, these navvies represented one of the largest migrations of Imperial settlers as they coin over from Ireland or as they followed the train tracks around the country and ended up settling in the last place they pitch work.In 1847 there were a quarter of a million navvies shot and blasting their way over the British landscape, their travels are one of the lesser documented migrations of history. However, t he job they did is alleviate plain to gather up in the British landscape some 150 years later and will be for many more years to come. The amount of track place in Britain increased from only 500 miles in 1838 to over 8,000 by 1855. This intricacy of track also brought down the cost of travel so that all but the poorest could afford to travel by train. In the stagecoach days, a ticket from London to Manchester and back would have cost 3 10s but by 1851 the train fare for this same journey was only 5s (a 7th of the stagecoach fare) for a far quicker and more comfortable journey.Of course, the expansion of the rail flexures didnt just rest on the invention of the steam train. compress was involve for the rails and its mass production helped to reduce the costs to the rail line line industry. In addition, iron girders and glass were used to construct magnificent feeling railroad track topographic points. regular older industries, like stonemasonry were given a clean leas e of life as vast quantities of stone and rock were needful for sleepers, bridges and displace. The railway line age was an enormous boost to the economy of Britain, and would provide the country with one of the most efficient infrastructures for the roostder of the century.It wouldnt take colonial administrators long to see the benefits that such an infrastructure could bring to the colonies they were in charge of. Particularly, as some of these colonies could be immense in size and with shrimpy existing infrastructure. Horses and get offs had provided the most efficient style of channel to date, but mails obviously couldnt r individually the interior and horses could not match the belt along and power of this latest invention. The old established colonies like India, leapt at the railway opportunities and reinforced a railway structure that would even rival the mother countrys in scope and scale. They were often financed by British industrialists keen to move the primary and twinklingary products of India to the ports ready to be exported to Britain and her factories. Cotton, spices and teas would all provide the sparingal model for railway building that would later be copied in other colonies by other crops and industries rubber in Malaysia, coffee bean in South America, grains in Canada and livestock in Australia and New Zealand.In some colonies, railways were used more as the initial pricker to advertise colonisation of an area. In Africa, railways were built to provide an infrastructure that would lure duster colonists into an area in order to farm the area and wring it into a profitable dependency. South Africa, Rhodesia and Kenya all cute to increase their white tribe and increase the economic activity of their lands and all spent copious amounts of funds and effort into building railways in what were rattling often inhospitable areas to atomic number 63an settlers. They all had varying degrees of success, but were built nonethel ess. Indeed, one of the burning issues of late nineteenth century was Cecil Rhodes burning ambition to build a mantlepiece to Cairo railway line that passed through British territory all the way. And this dream, although not realised by a train earnings, certainly influenced a great deal of Central African colonisation during the period.Another spur to the railway building in the nineteenth century was the British army. They too, promptly identified the advantages in being able to move troops and supplies around in a quick and efficient manner. The army would often try to influence local colonial administrators and get them to build railway lines to places which had little business or economic rationale. Alternatively, the army would build its own railway lines in areas they felt were necessary. In the case of Kitcheners Sudan campaign in the late 1890s, the army travelled down the Nile slowly but surely, not just out of tactical considerations, but because they were building a r ailway line as they travelled. In fact, this railway line is still in use as Sudans major railway line over a hundred years after it was built by the British army. Likewise in the Boer war, the British army came to depend on the strategic advantages of the railway ne dickensrk, but would also be exposed to the vulnerpower of this nedeucerk as the Boers transformed themselves into a guerilla army and destroyed bridges and lines at will. Despite this costly lesson, the British army maintained its take note and use of trains for many more years to come.Railways transformed the Empire in many ways, it increased business activity and allowed businesses to flourish in areas that antecedently would have been impossible to make a living in. It allowed officials to move speedyly over the areas that they governed. It allowed troops to be dispatched over great distances in in short periods of time, indeed this speed of response removed oft of the burden of having to station so many troops in a colony in the first place. Populations could benefit from access to cheaper goods as the factories of Europe could unleash their products to the far flung corners of the empire tinned goods, innovativespapers, boot polish and toys could all be moved at a fraction of the cost from previous days.The people themselves could move around the empire whether for business or for pleasure families could be reunited more regularly, farmers could travel long distances to get their products to market, businessmen could entertain clients from further afield. Even within relatively short distances and in crowded areas people measured to enjoy the benefits of the train system. Therefore, in London, one of the more interesting railway transformations was devised in the 1860s the underground system, or the tube. Using Victorian ingenuity and technical engineering expertness an elaborate underground system of trains was built that would be envied and copied by Metropolises the terra firm a over. And again, it reinvigorated the economic life of the urban center of London and allowed for only another relocation of businesses and ho employ for the masses of that city.The advantages of the railways were sheer to virtually everyone. These were the days when progress was seen as a universal good and the railways were a prime example of this beneficent progress.ShipsEngland was a small island nation off the coast of the very powerful and dynamic continent of Europe proper. There were three options open to the side of meat ruling classes. First of all, she could sop up herself into European politics and economics. However, the competition on this front was especially fierce French, Italians, Austrians and a myriad of other powerful nations would ensure that England would only be one player in a field of many. Besides, wars and religion do dabbling in this arena a very expensive one. Second, she could turn in on herself and try to stay aloof from the goings on of the knowledge base. This strategy accommodate the Nipponese in their dealings with their continental rivals. However the position were already keen switch overrs and had acquired tastes and business practices that make this option an unpalatble one. Her third choice was to turn to the opportunities offered by the rest of the population. And it is because she chose this path that first England, and then Britain, turned herself into the guide aloneing(prenominal) ocean nation of Europe and indeed the domain.Englands rise as a maritime nation started with the reign of King Henry VIII. His ambitions were manoeuvre more to Europe, but he did manage to lay down monetary and military foundations that would be taken advantage of by his successors. The Mary pink wine is testimony to the size and power that the King sought-after(a) to develop. He wanted a navy to project his power and influence onto the European governmental scene. Unfortunately, his plans and schemes were not in full realized during his reign. However, his treasury was full, the ports were protected by newfound castles and coastal defences and he had started a naval tradition that would bequeath worthy skills and experience to later generations of sea goers.By the time Queen Elizabeth came to the throne, the most powerful maritime nations were Spain and Portugal. These nations had encouraged explorers to find new, exciting and highly profitable trade routes. However, there were deep religious and philosophical divisions between these Catholic nations and the Protestant English. Queen Elizabeth had no love for these religious and economic rivals and essentially sanctioned piracy on the high seas as a inwardness of prosecuting war against the Catholic monarchies. Chief amongst her officially sanctioned privateers were Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins. These, and other sailors, wreaked havoc with Spanish and Portugese trade routes to the East Indies and particularly to the New World . The Caribbean became particularly notorious for rampant piracy.This rivalry turned into something of a naval ordnance store lean as the Spanish and English well-tried to outdo each other in terms of offensive power or in terms of speed to effluence say-so privateers.Military and commercial places of both nations would benefit from new technologies, techniques and skills. The naval rivalry between these two nations would come through a head in 1588 with the Spanish Armada. This Spanish attempt to stamp out her English rivals was a gamble that did not pay off. Bad weather and English seamanship saw that the Armada failed in its bid to land an army on English soil. More importantly, the destruction of much of the Armada left the English mariners in a very powerful position and particularly in the Caribbean and in the New World. In the East Indies with its spice trade, the English still had to deal with the Portugese and the Dutch as skillful competitors. But with the removal of the Spanish, the English were free to develop an unprecedentedly successful economic venture.There were two main commercial activities that allowed the English to maximise there maritime advantage Sugar and Slavery. In fact, these were two complemantary activities that would work very closely together. Slaves were needed to tend and harvest the sugar crops of the New World. The same ships that transported these slaves could then be loaded up with sugar and brought back to Europe. With the advent of industrialisation in Britain, the third leg of this trip could also be made profitable. seamy manufactured goods were taken from Liverpool and Bristol to West Africa and exchanged their for slaves, the slaves were exchanged for sugar in the Caribbean, and the sugar would finally be sold in Europe at a huge profit. The profits involved meant that few people likewise concern by any humanitarian or ethical issues. Indeed, the economic success of this trade would mean that even more ti me, money and skills were move into the British commercial and Royal Navies. The more and better the British ships became the more she took the mankinds trade and the faster she developed into the worlds preeminent naval power.By the mid to end of the eighteenth century, the British could cl amaze to have the largest and most successful naval forces in the world Both militarily and commercially. By this time, naval traditions, experience and expertise had been fully augmented by advances in science and the latest industrial products and techniques. British ships were familiar sites to ports and coastal regions the world over. However, two events would test this faith and self-assurance in the maritime forces of the nation.Soon, the British would realise that although they were a match for any nation on even terms, a combination of forces might lead to her undoing. The first test of this theory was the American War of Independence. French and Spanish involvement in supplying and m aintaining the insurrection. Combine this with Royal Naval ships and sailors struggle on the side of the colonists and the British could see that they were not as unconquerable as they would have liked to have believed. However, the real test of the strong suit and wideness of the Naval forces of Britain was to come with the rise of Napoleon on the European continent.A brilliant tactician and strategist, Napoleon swept most of Europe forwards him. As he took answerive control over these powers he also took control of their navies. The British tried their best to thwart these plans with some success in Holland and especially Denmark. However, the Spanish and French exceeds combined again to form a most formidable force. Unlike the days of the American War of Independence, it was clear that the only way the British could dispense with the threat of Napoleon was to confront and defeat this dark blue in an open battle. The stakes for the island nation had not been higher since t he days of Drake and the Spanish Armada. Fortunately for the British, a new hero rose to the hour. Admiral Nelson successfully defeated the combined fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar. He paid for this victory with his life, but he laid down a sense of security for the island nation that would remain intact for another century. Although disappointments and setbacks did occur, most notably in the War of 1812-14, essentially the Royal Navy returned to being the preeminent maritime nation.Indeed, the only safe threat to the Royal and Merchant Navies were the sailors, captains and admirals themselves. Complacency and a lack of serious rivals meant that the British maritime forces lay essentially unchanged for most of the nineteenth century. Half a century after the death of Nelson and the Royal Navy had barely changed at all even the ships were the same. The only serious innovation that made serious inroads into these traditions was the advent of steam.Even then, the Admiralty were reluc tant converts to this latest technology and pined for the days of sail. It would be left to commercial forces and entrepreneurs to explore and develop this means of power. The most important name associated with these developments is that of Isambard Kingdom Brunel. This man built the first steamship to cross the Atlantic the Great Western. The first ocean nooky steamer the Great Britain. And what for 40 years would be the largest ship ever built the Great Eastern. And although these ships were not the greatest of commercial triumphs the combination of ingenuity, expertise and industrial technology would mean that Britain would remain at the forefront of maritime power for some time to come.Steam power would open up other avenues for exploration that had previously been difficult if not impossible for mariners to pursue. The ability to power a vessel upstream would mean that many of the worlds rivers could be opened up to European explorers and traders. This would allow for new par ts of the world to be explored and new commerical and political relationships to be established. Africa would see this technology utilise along its many rivers. Indeed, steamships would even be taken overland to operate on the great lakes of the African interior.One side effect of the introduction of steampower was that coaling stations would become a strategic necessary to the Royal and Merchant Navies. All of a sudden, the Royal Navy became concerned at the placement of Naval bases particularly with regards to how far a ship could steam before it needed refuelling. This new strategic thinking would be augmented and amended by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. The world was becoming a smaller place at a rapid rate and maritime necessities would be prime in consideration for much of the Imperial expansion of the day.Cash crops would be the new cash overawe that provided the financial impetus for maritime ventures at the Imperial level. Tea, cotton, rubber, even opium would a ll take their turn in providing the imperatives and returns in investing in Britains maritime fleets. Combine these financial considerations with regular British trade patterns with Europe, Latin America and the United states and the fact that populations were willing and able to move almost the planet in unprecedented numbers and the importance of ships and maritime polity to the British Empire is easy to comprehend.The attached challenge to British advantage of the waves was to be by the Germans. By the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the ordinal centuries European and imperial rivalries combined to form ominous and powerful blocks of nations. On one side lay the French and Russians, on the other the Germans, Italians and Austrians. Britain tried to remain aloof for as long as possible, but when the Germans say that they wanted a Navy that was the equal of the Royal Navy, the gauntlet had been laid and the British joined with the French and Russians. A naval arms race between the British and Germans was proving costly to both countries, it didnt help matters when one of Britains own innovations nearly bankrupted the nation. The development of the Battleship Dreadnought in 1906 kept the British at the front of Naval technology but at the cost of making their entire existing fleet obsolescent. The Germans would soft be able to catch up to the British with this new technology and, if it hadnt been for competing claims on the German military budget, might have succeeded in doing so.As it was, during The Great War, the British were just able to keep ahead of the Germans and successfully bottled them up in their Baltic ports for most of the war. However, another military development would provide fresh worries and portents enough for the British. The submarine did not effect the war as much as their German commanders had hoped, but their potential for disrupting existing Naval balances of power were clear to all. These concerns would be played ou t at a much more lethal level during the next war.Meanwhile, the interwar period saw cutbacks to both the Royal and Merchant Navies. With little appetence left for armed forces, British politicians cut back defence expending on all of the services. The Royal Navy was no exception. These cutbacks came just as new maritime rivals could be seen on the horizon. During The Great War, the Americans had turned their enormous industrial might to outfitting her armed forces in a very short period of time. At the same time, the Japanese had been left unquestioned to develop in the Pacific Ocean.When the war ended they quickly sought to establish some kind of parity with the Royal Navy the termination was the Washington conference. This conference established the so called 553 ratios for capital ships. America and Britain were to be equal in size and number of ships whilst the Japan maintained 60% of these numbers. The effect of the conference was that Britain, for the first time since Dra ke, admitted that she would only be the equal of another power. No longer would she aim to be the preeminent naval power. In reality, she had also given the Japanese a local high quality in the Pacific region. A superiority the Japanese would use to dismember much of the British Asian Empire.The Second World War was to put Britain in as much, if not more, lie in wait than in the first. Her naval commanders rightly identified submarine warfare as being the biggest threat the island nation. The Royal and Merchant Navies took horrendous losses as these commanders developed ways of dealing with this silent menace. Convoys and ASDIC did most to overcompensate this balance. But it was a long, hard fight and one that left Britain militarily and economically exhausted by the end of the war.Britain would never reclaim its power maritime glory. The United States and Soviet Navies would eclipse the Royal Navy in size, technology and power. Aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines and the rise of Air Power in customary would mean that the strategic balance had been tipped forever. Withdrawal from Empire speeded up this process even more, bases in the Far East, South East Asia, the nerve center East and even the Mediterranean seemed like expensive anachronisms that no longer served any purpose. At a commercial level, the rise of air transport killed off much of the passenger business of the shipping lines. Also, new trade patterns were established as Imperial trade was replaced by much shorter European destinations.The fall from grace of the British naval heritage is only so precipitate when you realise how long and how deep that tradition has been the lifeblood of the nation. Generations of citizens grew up with the inexplicit belief that Britannia Ruled the Waves. Now that she is a middle ranking European nation, it is not hard to see why so many people lament the passing of an era and why it inspires so many more to be fascinated and interested in this area of Briti sh history. communication theoryThe telecommunicate system was one of the technological wonders of the nineteenth century. It transformed communications in a profound way and helped to give the British Army a technological superiority over most of her competitors. Its invention was a product of the enthusiasm and skill of industrial revolutionary Britain. William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone, a scientist and an entrepreneur, teamed up to forge a devastatingly effective alliance that combined the savvy of both individuals to produce the needle wire. Wheatstone came up with the technological aspect whilst the Cooke had the prediction to approach the railway companies in order to run their lines along side the railway tracks. On 25 July 1837 the first experimental line with the new telegraph was started.The Great Western Railway Company connected the stations Euston Square and Camden Town over a distance of 2.4 kilometres. It was an outstanding success that not only amaze d Victorians but displayed obvious applications for its use. When it was used to administer such news as the birth of Queen Victorias second son, or to catch a murderer who had attempted an escape by train, its acceptance and usefulness was plain for all to see. In fact, the only problem with this initial invention was that it the code to transmit messages was rather bunglesome and in fact only twenty letters were used of the alphabet. reference book for the simplification of the both the hardware and code was to cross the Atlantic to a certain Samuel Morse.Samuel Morse had a mission in life. A god-fearing Christian, his world had turned upside down when he missed the funeral of his married woman due to a message being delivered late. He never wanted anyone to go through the pain that he had endured and so set about perfecting an easy to use message system. His revolution centred around the idea of send pulses of electricity of two fixed lengths dots and dashes. The subsequent morse code was so much easier to for all to master. He too saw the logic in following the railroad lines and telegraph poles continued their close relationships to the railway lines that were bit by bit spreading out over the continents of the world. Of course, there were larger scale boundaries that also needed crossing.Crossing the Atlantic Ocean with a submarine telegraph line was one of the holy grails of Victorian technological advances. So much so that Sirus Field, a very rich American businessman, personally financed the hiring of two warships, one American and one British (USS Buchanan and HMS Victoria), to simply start in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean and pull the wire to the opposing sides of the Atlantic. later a couple of attempts, they did indeed manage to succeed in their endeavour.The president of the United States and Queen Victoria managed to exchange pleasantries crosswise all those thousands of miles. Unfortunately, the line only worked for just over two wee ks. The Victorian scientists had not expect the high voltages that were required to send messages across those thousands of miles. The tune simply burnt-out out. It would be seven years before the line was reconnected. The problem being that the new, low voltage, well insulated wires were just too thick for any ship to be able to carry. Until, that was, the SS Great Eastern was launched. This was a behemoth of a ship that dwarfed all other ships by its size and speed. In 1866 she tardily connected the two continents together.Submarine telegraph lines were now spreading across the world as the British government realised the full potential for governing and communicating with its far flung empire. By 1890, of the inhabited British territories, only Fiji, British Honduras, Tobago, the Falkland Islands, Turks Islands and New Guinea had no cable at all. The importance that Britain personally invested in this world wide infrastructure is borne out by the statistic that by 1914, 75% of all the worlds submarine lines were held by the British. Indeed, within hours of the outbreak of the First World War, the first action taken by any of the British and Imperial Forces around the world was very taken in Melbourne in Australia. A German merchant ship was fired on by coastal batteries as she attempted to leave port. The fact that this took place on the exact opposite side of the world illustrates how much smaller the empire had become with the advent of telegraphy.Before the advent of this technology, the British government had had to entrust a great deal of local powers to its representatives across the world. When it took three months for a message to travel from a colony back to the capital, waiting for a reply was a luxury that a great deal could not be tolerated. The man on the spot was a very powerful figure indeed. With the advent of the telegraph, London could have virtually instantaneous contact with the capitals of her colonies and dominions and conduct busi ness from afar.Cables Being Laid in CanadaThe value of Britains world wide telegraphic system actually contributed to Britains strategic worries. The cables were kept in British colonies or under British controlled seas as much as possible, but this was not always avoidable. Whenever this occurred the British worried about interceptions of messages or of cutting the link altogether. For example, the link to Australia passed over Dutch Java, the South American cable ran through Portugese Madeira, but credibly the biggest headache of all to Britains strategic thinkers was the cable that ran from London to Calcutta. In fact, there were three such cables.One ran from Lowestoft to Germany, through Russia, Persia and in to India. aside from the strategic nightmares of this essential line of communication was the fact that the Germans and Russians were in a position to keep the costs of using this cable artificially high. The second cable was not much better. It ran across Europe to Consta ntinople, across misfire to the Persian Gulf and then by cable to Karachi. Little credence could be placed on the Ottoman empire. The third cable ran from London to Gibraltar to Malta, Egypt to Aden and then on to Bombay. This looked secure enough, but still relied on using Spanish relay stations to boost the signals. Besides, it was generally more economic to send the messages up over France from Malta.To add to the strategic difficulties the vagaries of the currents and weather caused yet further headaches. Storms, winds, silt, even fishermen could all accidentally disrupt the sending of messages. unite with the distances involved, it is little wonder the tariffs could be so high. 4 shillings per word to India, and 6s. 9d. to Australia. And yet, the British were convinced that the value of the system was worth the price. All over the world, Englishmen were employed laying or maintaining cables or operating booster stations along the line. The cable manager often became a key mem ber of golf club for the further flung outposts of imperial society. In Australia, Alice Springs actually came to life as the fundamental station for the overland 2000 mile telegraph line stretching from Adelaide to the North. These 36,000 telegraph poles were built years before any road or railway line crossed the continent. And it could be dangerous too. In 1874, two cable men were speared to death by Aborigines.The laying and maintaining of this enormous network must rank as one of the most important achievements of the British Empire. Its scope and utility is hard to imagine in a world where instantaneous communications are taken for granted. Before the invention of the Telegraph the speed of communication had changed little since the time of the Romans. Within thirty years of the first twitchings of Cooks and Wheatstones needle telegraph, the world had been made substantially smaller.

How does George Orwell show this in the novel Essay

The bulls eyes corrupt the animals minds and gain haughty tycoon. How does George Or tumesce show this in the novel? In the novel carnal get up by George Orwell, the pigs corrupt the animals minds and gain absolute power by using their wisdom and knowledge to exploit the uneducated and impartial animals. They petrified the animals by using the dogs as their secret patrol they made the animals study that snowball was a traitor and that he had destroyed all their laborious work, no matter what the pigs had to do to gain power they did heretofore if it meant come outing the animals because it would obviously still be to their benefits.They did not lose any prospect to gain power it was as if they were thirsty and hungry for power. Squealer is the pig which spreads short sleeps propaganda among the other animals. Squealer justifies the pigs exploitation of resources and spreads glowering statistics pointing to the bring forths success. In sentient being Farm, the smooth- talking pig Squealer abuses language to warrant Napoleons actions and policies to the working class by whatever g overnment agency seem essential. By radically simplifying languageas when he teaches the sheep to kick Four legs good, two legs bad (George Orwell, Animal Farm, Chapter 2 page 24) he limits the terms of debate. By complicating language unnecessarily, he confuses and frightens the uneducated, as when he explains that a birds wing is an organ of propulsion and not of economic consumption (George Orwell, Animal Farm, Chapter 2 page 24). In this latter strategy, he to a fault practices non sniff out (tactics, tactics) as well as the exercising of false vocabulary and statistics, engendering in the other animals of both self-doubt and a sense of hopelessness about ever accessing the truth without the pigs mediation.Squealers escape of conscience and unwavering loyalty to his leader, alongside his rhetorical skills, making him the thoroughgoing(a) propagandist for any t yranny. Squealers name withal fits him well squealing, of course, refers to a pigs typical form of vocalization, and Squealers speech defines him. At the same time, to squeal besides means to betray, guardianship in remainder of Squealers behaviour with regard to his match animals. Squealer is the insincere and expressive propagandist. We are told that he can plow black to white and that he has a shrill voice and flicker eyes, which are his assets that he manipulates for his propaganda.He and the general persuasiveness of his fiber are fundamental to Napoleons success. Napoleon petrifying the animals also makes them think otherwise. In the novel the pigs use dogs as their secret police and whoever approaches to a disagreement of the pigs decisions are slaughtered by the dogs, making the unprotected animals even more petrified.As the pigs took more control the animals could not even weave their crowns up and say a word because of the terror and detriment they could possibly get from the secret police. They had come to a time when no cardinal dared speak his mind, when fierce, growling dogs roamed everywhere, and when you had to watch your comrades torn to pieces after confessing to shocking crimes (George Orwell, Animal Farm, Chapter 7 page 64). The use of the dogs begins the evil use of force which helps Napoleon maintain power. Later, the dogs do even more dastardly things when they are instructed to kill the animals labeled disloyal. Since the pigs are the brains in the get up, they exploit the animals minds and gain absolute power by identifying an enemy to back them up.The usage of snowball for all the bad that happened If a window was broken or a drain was blocked up, someone was certain to say that snowball had come in the night and done it, and when the key of the store-shed was lost, the whole farm was convinced that Snowball had thrown it down the well. Curiously enough, they went on accept this even after the mislaid key was found under a sack of meal (George Orwell, Animal Farm, Ch. 7 page 57). The pigs made the animals conceptualize that snowball was the traitor and in this case they could turn to Napoleon and visualize him the most suitable.The pigs management of all sources of information also achieves power. Since the animals are presented naive they cannot prevent themselves from being manipulated. It had become usual to strive Napoleon the credit for every successful achievement and every shooting of good fortune. You would often hear one hen remark to another, down the stairs the guidance of our Leader, Comrade Napoleon, I have laid five testicle in six days or two cows, enjoying a soak up at the pool, would exclaim, Thanks to the leadership of Comrade Napoleon, how excellent this water tastes (George Orwell, Animal Farm, Chapter 8 page 67-68).It is clear that whatever it took the pigs to gain power, without doubts they would consider, since it was clearly a benefit for them. The pigs used their wisdo m and knowledge to take power over the uneducated and naive animals. Their thirst for power was so great that they killed the animals to represent that they were right and it was for their benefit to consider whatever the pigs commanded them to do. At the end the animals hear and carry out what the pigs would tell them to do, even if it meant petrifying them or killing them.

Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards:

business enterprise Satisfaction, effelectro yardbirdvulsive therapy Environ manpowert, and harbours motifal Theory Revisited labr_496 1.. 23 grazing land Sell Bryan Cleal Abstract. A homunculus of billet gaiety integrating sparingal and campaign environs shiftings was develop and habitd for runneling interactions amongst fixs and live on environ manpowert hazards. Data came from a representative panel of Danish employees. Results destineed that psycho healthful-disposed piddle environ custodyt factors, like culture about decisions victimizecerning the transaction puzzle, affectionate stand-in, and in? uence, maintain signi? jackpott impacts on the take of suppose joy.Maximizing rewards did non shroud existence employees to an extent that amelio flummoxd the prohibitly charged order on melodic phrase delight of experiencing abject take aims of either of these factors w here(predicate)as in? uence did non impact stock joy of snob bish employees. 1. Introduction Although business worry gratification is non bustlesidered an scotch variable in itself, rough(a)(prenominal) studies in a labour e gipomic context squander senior extravag antly schoollighted that clinical depression capriole bliss is a determin ant of resignations from the stool place see Akerlof et al. (1988), uninfected and Diderichsen (1995), Clark et al. 1998), and Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). Other studies have shown an impact from ponder ecstasy on phenomena that ar more dif? cult to observe directly, such as intention to sidetrack the ply place (Bocker manhood and Ilmakunnas, 2005), motive and absenteeism (Keller, 1983 Thargonnou, 1993), and counterproductive behaviour (Gottfredson and Holland, 1990). ladder environment has been found to in? uence labour mart subjects in terms of wee retirement (see Lund and Villadsen, 2005), employee long-term absence from organize compensationable to illness (see B enavides et al. 2001 Hemmingway et al. , 1997 Lund et al. , 2005), short- wander sickness absence (see Munch-Hansen et al. , 2009), and productivity (see Cooper et al. , 1996). Within traditional economic surmisal, engage environment factors have endureed to be modelled as duty attri thoes, seen as hazards at sue for which compensating plight assortedials atomic offspring 18 to be paid. The scheme of compensating wage diametricalial coefficients goes as far back as Adam Smiths book, Wealth of Nations, from 1776, where equalizing wage unlikeials ad honourable the net advantages of different pedigrees.This makes it executable to procure cosmopolitan labour market equilibrium when cogitation places, preferences, and techno recordies be heterogeneous. Rosen (1986) reviews the unhomogeneous studies on the atomic number 18a and ? nds consequence of compensating wage differentials especi aloney for physical on the gambol(p)(a) conditions, like shift guide, heav y, dirty, or dangerous give way. Other studies ? nd no evidence of compensating wages differentials (see Ehrenberg and Smith, 1994) or, in cases where proceeders do fulfill compensating wages residuals, that the salary does non re? ct their true preferences (see Lanfranchi, 2002). pasturage Sell Bryan Cleal (author for addence), The bailiwick Research Centre for the tameing Environment, Lerso Park each(prenominal)e 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark. E-mail email&160protected dk. LABOUR 25 (1) 123 (2011) DOI 10. 1111/j. 1467-9914. 2010. 00496. x JEL J6, J28, J30, J31, J45, J81 2011 CEIS, Fondazi single Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell print Ltd, 9600 Garsington Rd. , Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St. , Malden, MA 02148, USA. 2 Lea Sell Bryan ClealAccording to the theory of compensating wages differentials, the equalization of amount of m unityy compensation is forecastent on two perfect mobility of workers and perfect schooling for workers and ? rms. Both assumptions be suspicionable. Mobility may be, at least temporarily, limited by factors such as a steep unemployment yard or family ties, confine lineage choice to a speci? c mix of work hours, pay, or location. Likewise, honest information get winding works conditions, especially when drawing in psycho tender work factors, quite a littlenot be known in advance, moreover if will be see merely in the actual work situation.Under these circumstances adverse working conditions nominate have an impact on the train of think over cheer flat if spunky wages atomic number 18 paid. The purpose of the present root is to identify determinants of air enjoyment in a model that contains diminutive information on both(prenominal) work environment and economic factors. Moreover, we lack to test if employees encompass the similar take of channel expiation when unfastened to a hazardous work environment in which compensations be maximized, as compargond with a non-hazardous work environment in which in that location be no compensatory rewards.The essences from the ? rst analytic thinking are of inte catch ones breath because most previous studies on melody gaiety ein truth do not take all economic variables of interest, and are cross- ingrediental studies not accounting for unobserved heterogeneity, or include unaccompanied few work environment factors. The second abridgment can supplement the theory of compensating wages differentials by introducing more detailed work environment assesss and by testing the susceptibility of rewards to compensate workers for hazards in the work environment to an extent that ameliorates the cause on line of merchandise gladness.The work environment factors considered are all evidence-based wellness perils factors, thereby both long-term make on work ability and health and short-term effects on employee triumph and motif are considered. The information apply in this contemplate are a panel of a represe ntative age group of Danish employees at two points in age, 1995 and 2000. The selective information set consists of individual assessments of working conditions and socio-economic info for 3,412 employees (when omitting observations with lacking(p) rejoinder on any of the items analysed here). The data were self-contained by the National Institute of Occupational Health in Denmark. . suppositious background product line mirth is not an absolute dance step plainly merely an indicator for a range of cheat characteristics. Using Lockes (1976) de? nition, moving in mirth is a electro verificatory emotional state resulting from the esteem of ones pipeline and it is worth recalling here that such infixed data are widely distributedly viewed with suspicion by economists. Freeman (1978) states that the headliner problem in interpreting responses to such questions is that they depend not alone on the objective circumstances in which an individual is situated, but over ly on ones psychological state.Moreover, the direct of descent gratification may likewise be in? uenced by ability so representing unobservable, shelter characteristics of individuals. Earlier studies deep down cheekal psychology have shown that the train of job mirth varies very little over condemnation, suggesting that it does re? ect underlying stable individualized dis postal services (see Schneider and Dachler, 1978). This has been tested on a cohort of German employees by Dormann and Zapf (2001) in a review on the studies on the alleged stability of job gladness.The result was that after(prenominal) underwriteling for stable working conditions, the stability of job satisfaction diminishes to nonsigni? cance, indicating that an underlying dis locational in? uence on job satisfaction is not direct, but mediated by working conditions. This also suggests that the train of job satisfaction can be changed by organizational measurings. 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell publish Ltd labor Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 3 A general and well-known model of job satisfaction was developed by Herzberg (see Herzberg et al. 1959). He found that some job factors could hike cause dissatisfaction or short- plumping want whereas other factors could invoke long-lasting positive feelings towards the job. If job factors are in fact dual with regard to their effect on job satisfaction, the manner used for examining job satisfaction should account for this. If totally testing for positive or negative connexions between the covariates and job satisfaction, information on the factors existenceness only capable of ca utilize every high job satisfaction or first-class honours degree job satisfaction would most likely be upset.As for the effects of compensatory rewards, this may be essential and consequently separate analyses are undertaken here for the outcome universe extremely satis? ed with the job and the outcome be dissatis? ed with the job. Many of the earlier studies on job satisfaction have do an analytical distinction between the two sexual activitys as there consistently has been reported high(prenominal)(prenominal) job satisfaction for women see, for example, Sloane and Williams (2000) and Clark (1997). Where Sloane and Williams ? nd that the differences stem from men and women having different graphemes of work, Clark ? ds that neither different jobs, their different work nurtures, nor ingest selection accounts for the gender satisfaction differential. Rather he proposes an explanation based on well-organism relative to expectations. A man and a woman with the same jobs and aims of expectations would report identical levels of job satisfaction. neverthe little as womens expectations are let outer than mens due to having been more attached to work in the home, they will report higher job satisfaction than their male counterparts even addicted the same working conditions. Th is hypothesis is stomached by the ? ding that the gender satisfaction differential disappears for the young, the higher educated, professionals and those in male-dominated work places. This can be link up to the aloofness of time women have had an established position at the labour market, an know that has been further exploited in a newsprint by Kaiser (2005). hither Denmark, Finland, and the force outherlands are the only European countries that do not show signi? pious platitude genderjob satisfaction differences. They argue that the genderjob satisfaction paradox fades out in the process of modernizations of the labour market.This modernization is facilitated if the well- be state as in Scandinavia and, to a sealed extent, the Netherlands nominates equal opportunities for women and men by room of, for example, kindergartens and homes for the elderly people. A more repenny subject area deep down this line of economic literature is based on the theory that the genera l welkin is likely to king individuals with high intrinsic want to care about the recipients of macrocosm service or those who thrive on the social comprehension they might receive for contributing to an alpha thrill (Benabou and Ti government agency, 2006).And although the picture is not fully conclusive, studies have in fact shown that in public occupied workers are little motivated by high pay and place a higher honour on the intrinsic rewards than employees inside the clubby sphere of influence. They are prepared to work for a lower overall pay level than is the case for backstage- domain employees because they derive satisfaction from participating in the production of a steady-going of high social value see, for example, Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000). Ren (2010) points to that value congruence or organization and employees can strengthen the intrinsic motivation. He also investigates whether value congruence can impact the design of the organizati on and ? nds that value congruence is related to employee participation in decision do and autonomy as opposed to control. Apart from the above discussed differences in the fillip structures in the public and the private domain, there is also a difference in the gender distribution within the two vault of heavens as women tend to be over-represented in the public as well as the non-pro? t sector. Narcy et al. 2008) investigates possible explanations for this and ? nds that the feminization of the public sector can be explained by the fact that women obtain a higher wage gain from choosing this sector than men do, investigating, among other factors, the social objectives traild by the 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell print Ltd 4 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal public sector. Also ? exible working hours have seemed to attract women. The result in regard to wages was found for Greek data in Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007). In Denmark 63. per centime of the empl oyees in the public sector are women whereas this ? gure for the private sector is only 35. 1 per cent (OECD, 1997). According to the previous discussion, a meaningful analytical distinction when studying job satisfaction is between the private and the public sector. Newer studies that have applied this distinction with good results are, for example, Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007) and Ghinetti (2007). They use Greek and Italian data, respectively, and the measures are on so-called estate satisfactions representing different facets of the job, instead of a universal measure.Ghinetti examines differences in satisfaction between the private and the public sector in regard to six non-pecuniary job attributes. He ? nds that public and private employees are equally satis? ed on lead of the items, that the publicly apply are more satis? ed on two items, and one item with mixed results. Using a element on sector, gender differences can be tested by operator of interactions effects. In the present paper, we use a division on sector in combination with tests of gender interaction effects. An often discussed topic in relation to job satisfaction is wage.The general assumption is that higher wage increases job satisfaction, not necessarily because it actually makes you happier in the job, but because a higher wage increases overall expediency by increasing nitty-gritty expenditure opportunities. Many studies apply a general job satisfaction measure, which makes it dif? cult to distinguish the two effects. Furthermore, not only absolute, but also relative wage is considered to be positively correlated to the level of job satisfaction. This is when victimisation the wages of other workers having the same characteristics and type of job for parity see, for example, Clark (1996).In the present paper, wage is used as one type of reward along with recognition and time to come opportunities at the job. In enjoin not to confuse the dealinghips between the three typ es of rewards, we use the absolute wage in the present analyses as opposed to relative wages. The job satisfaction measure applied is a general measure of job satisfaction. Other determinants of job satisfaction often applied in analyses performed within labour economic theory and thus also used in our analyses include reproduction, job tenure, managerial position, the unemployment rate, and marital status and number of children.term of office and having a leading position have intimately always been found to be positively related to job satisfaction (Clark, 1997). The relationships between job satisfaction, level of preparation, the unemployment rate, and wages are intertwined and convoluted. Education assists wages and thus job satisfaction. But rearing also raises expectations with respect to job content and thus the likeliness of experiencing job dissatisfaction. In addition, there is more opportunity for mobility between jobs in the low-wage job market due to fewer matchi ng criteria for taking a job, increasing the likeliness of job satisfaction.Finally, a lower unemployment rate can raise job satisfaction through improved mobility (see Akerlof et al. , 1988). Where possible we use the unemployment rate within speci? c professions (60 per cent in the current sample), otherwise the average unemployment rate is used. Hours of work have been considered as a measure of the disutility of work whereas utility is increasing with increased leisure time. In Denmark, as well as in many other countries, working hours have to a ample extent become a non-divisible good as a result of regulation.Moreover, long working hours can be evident both for workers having a very challenging job and for workers just having too much work, as shown by Kristensen et al. (2004). As a result we decided not to use the absolute number of working hours in our analyses and included ? exibility of working hours instead. Although work environment has been used bulkyly in earlier jo b satisfaction studies, the present article restricts its focus to factors where there is evidence of negative health outcomes. 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell publishing Ltd excogitate Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 5 A widely used theory within psychosocial work environment research is the requisite control model, clear up by Karasek (see Karasek and Theorell, 1990). blood demands encompass quantitative job demands, time wedge, and con? icting job demands whereas decision latitude in contrast is a measure of control and composed of level of job discretion and the point of in? uence. Workers receptive to high demands and low control have an increased luck for a number of diseases, notably cardiovascular diseases.High job demands in association with low control have also been associated with diseases such as musculoskeletal disorders, psychiatric illness, gastrointestinal illness, cancer, suicide, sleeping problems, and diabetes (see Kriste nsen, 1996). Later studies (e. g. Johnson and Hall, 1988) have shown that a high level of social support can counteract the negative effects of high job strain. A more recent theory is the crusadereward imbalance model by Siegrist (1996). High effort in combination with low rewards has been shown to have an impact on stress, sudden cardiac death, and hypertension.In this model job demands are a composite measure of time pressure and other quantitative demands, similar to the demands of the demandcontrol model. Reward can be in the form of wages, recognition, and opportunities for personal development or career opportunities. In our analyses we integrate all three reward measures in testing if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when uncovered to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in which there are no compensatory rewards.Job certification and predictability are related to the concep tion of status control. Not having a high level of information on decisions that concern the work place is an invisible stressor that has been found to predict heart disease (see Iversen et al. , 1989). In the extensive Whitehall II study set-up in Britain in order to investigate the causes of the social gradient in morbidity and mortality, the impact of privatization on a agent civil-servant department when job outcomes were not established was evaluated (see Stansfeld et al. , 1997).In the gap between the resolution of the privatization and the termination phase where the employees had gained more certainty about their future(a) job status, there was an increase in the psychiatric morbidity compared with the morbidity in the period before the announcement of the privatization. Other psychosocial health factors included in the analyses in this paper are beness exposed to aggression at the work place and role con? icts. Exposure to con? icts, teasing, or threats of military u nit can provoke stress, anxiety, and, in the long run, fatigue in the victims (see Hoegh, 2005).Role con? ict is a measure of con? icting demands and unclear responsibilities and is considered a mention of chronic stress, also shown to have an impact on job satisfaction (Fisher and Gitelson, 1983). Physical job demands are included using a measure of the frequency of odd working positions, including having the back intemperately stage set send on with no support for detainment or arms, twisted or bent body, hands lifted to shoulder height or higher, the neck heavily bent forward or squatting or kneeling (see Lund and Tsonka, 2003). hindrance is measured on a dichotomous scale re? cting if workers are exposed to noise so high that one must raise his or her phonate more than 75 per cent of the time in order to communicate with others. For a review of the effects of noise on mental health, see Stansfeld et al. (2000). 3. Method 3. 1 Elaboration of variables In this paper the word ing of the question on job satisfaction is be you satis? ed with your job? . The answers fall in four verbally labelled and arranged categories. Possible answers are 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell publish Ltd 6 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal Yes, then, To some extent, Not so much, and No or very seldom. For analytical purposes, answers in the course Yes, therefore de? ne the outcome high job satisfaction whereas answers in categories Not so much and No or very seldom de? ne beness dissatis? ed with the job. In general the variables are entered in the model in their original form. However the variable representing high demands in combination with low control, as well as the scale for social support, is composed of several measures. Social support consists of a practical and a psychological dimension, both of which are assessed in the questionnaires.The scales differ slightly from 1995 to 2000 and we have therefore dichotomized in a way that makes them equivalent . Hence we only look at situations where the employee either always receives help, support, and hike or not. There are separate questions for social support from colleagues and from leaders or bests. Not always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors is assigned the net level, always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors are the two intermediate levels, and always receiving support from both groups is the highest level.In order to measure demands and level of control, a variable that re? ects the demands in different occupations has been constructed. Demands are de? ned as being high if work demands attention and full concentration almost all of the time, if the pace of work is perceived to be very fast, or when con? icting or unclear job demands are considerd. Low control is de? ned as a combination of limited in? uence on planning ones own work and low job variation. 3. 2 Data and the population Data on work environment and health in the working p opulation were obtained from the Danish Work Environment Cohort Study (DWECS) (see Burr et al. 2003). The panel started out with a simple random sample drawn from the central population designate in 1990, consisting of people aged 1859 days per 1 October 1990. People in this panel were interviewed in 1995, 2000, and 2005 and the panel is continuously adjusted for ageing and immigration. The 1990 sample consisted of 9,653 individuals of which 8,664 participated (90 per cent). Of these, 6,067 (70 per cent) were wages earners. The quest 1995 sample consisted of 10,702 persons, of which 8,572 participated (80 per cent).Of the participants in 1995, 5,649 (65. 9 per cent) were wage earners, 6. 7 per cent were enterprise owners, and 27. 4 per cent were not in the job market. Of the 5,649 wage earners in 1995, 4,647 also participated in the contemplate in 2000 (82. 3 per cent). The population used for the analyses in this paper are the responders who were wage earners in 1995 and who also participated in DWECS as wage earners in 2000, corresponding to 3,773 individuals. The sample only contains information about present job in 1995 and 2000, respectively, and on tenure in these jobs. culture on possible interfere unemployment spells is only obtainable when linking the data set to a register of social payment transfers that have not been within the scope of this paper. Job satisfaction has shown to be related to job change as in, for example, Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). As for job change in our population, a total of 1,128 individuals have changed work place in the period. When dividing this subsample on job satisfaction levels as reported in 1995, 49. 7 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom satis? ed with the job change work place during the 5-year period whereas only 32. per cent of those who were passing or to some extent satis? ed with the job have changed job by 2000. Moreover, as wage earners who had a low degree of job satis faction in 1995 have had a higher 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell produce Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 7 incentive to leave the work great power completely or start their own enterprise by 2000, the ? nal sample may be biased. To estimate the size of this potential bias, all participants in 2000 (including unemployed and enterprise owners) are divided among the four categories of job satisfaction levels reported in 1995.The results are that 21 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom, satis? ed are not in the work force in 2000. Of those who were extremely or to some extent satis? ed with the job, only 14 per cent had left the work force. However, the total amount of dissatis? ed workers who have left the sample amounts to 58 persons and attrition should therefore not pose a serious threat to the reliability of results. After deducting observations with missing values on any of the analysed items, the cohort consisted of 3, 412 individuals. See postpone 1 for sample characteristics. 3. 3 Statistical analysesThe data resulting from measuring qualitative phenomena by the use of questionnaires are most often categorical, ordinally scaled data. This fashion that they are ordered, but with intervals that might be uneven. One example is measures of job satisfaction using a verbal rating scale, consisting of a discrete number of verbally described ordered categories. This type of data restricts the types of arithmetic trading operations that can be applied, which in act upon limit the range of statistical rules suitable for the analysis. As noted earlier, another problem when analysing job satisfaction is that of unobserved heterogeneity.It causes problems because the retrogression model is based on the assumption that there is no correlativity between the explanatory variables and the erroneous belief term. But as the error term captures the variation from potentially omitted variables such as ? xed personal traits that may in? uence the luck of a speci? c outcome on the job satisfaction variable, this type of model error is likely to return in analyses of job satisfaction. A method to eliminate heterogeneity is the lotion of qualified likelihood in logistic arrested development toward the mean, as shown by Chamberlain (1980) in the case of having a binary response variable.The principle applied here is that when using logistic backsliding with conditional likelihood and having more than one observation per object, the variables that do not change values are not used in the estimation. Unfortunately this also mean that a variable like gender will be omitted from the estimation. The latter(prenominal) problem can be solved by either ruinting up the analysis in two parts gibe to gender or by integrating gender effects as interaction effects, which is the method adopt in this paper.As the scale on which job satisfaction is measured in the present analysis consists of fou r ordered categories with verbal ratings, ordinal par can be assumed and the response variable can be recoded to a binary variable without violating any assumptions. Conditional likelihood estimation is performed using the panel 19952000. Supplementary ordinary regressions are completed using the cross-sectional data from 2000. Predicted probabilities are generated from the cross-sectional data. Initially, correlation analysis using Kendall Tau was performed on all explanatory variables. The correlation coef? cient was at a lower place 0. 0 leave off between age and tenure, and between education in years and wage. Tenure is used as a substitute for age, as the sign of the correlation between age and job satisfaction also may depend on age (Clark et al. , 1998). Educational levels were dichotomized and tested in the model as with the gender interaction terms. The full model with variables given in skirt 1 and Appendix A becomes 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwe ll Publishing Ltd Age in years Mean Years of school Mean Std. deviation Professions Vocational train Marital status Cohabiting 39. 7 commonplace 13. 3 2. 57 34. 2 79. 3 35. 7 hugger-mugger 995 12. 1 2. 19 53. 5 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 74. 7 80. 8 54. 4 12. 5 2. 36 40. 9 secluded 2000 81. 9 33. 7 13. 7 2. 53 44. 7 familiar Net month pay Mean, DKK. Std. deviation Tenure Mean Std. deviation sexual practice male Female 64. 9 35. 1 7. 0 7. 52 10,891 4,909 Private board 1. Summary of key demographic and economic variables in equilibrize panel (N = 3,412) 1995 36. 6 63. 4 8. 8 8. 10 9,932 4,102 globe 65. 0 35. 0 9. 0 8. 79 13,600 4,667 Private 2000 34. 5 65. 0 11. 4 9. 64 12,123 3,541 Public 8 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 9 JSij = ? i + ? marriedij + ? 2 Childrenij + ? 3High schoolij + ? 4 utterly further educationij u + ? 5 Tenureij + ? 6 attractorij + ? 7 unemployment rateij + ? 8 Noiseij + ? 9 Physical strainij + ? 10 Influenceij + ? 11High demand-low controlij + ? 12 Job auspicesij + ? 13 dataij + ? 14 Role conflict ij + ? 15Social sup port ij + ? 16 Conflict at workij + ? 17 Flexible hoursij + ? 18 Logpay ij + ? 19 Job futurei + ? 20 quotation leaderi + ? ij . The i subscript refers to different persons and j refers to different measurements for person i, Job satisfaction (JS) is the dependent variable, a the constant, b is the transmitter of the coef? ients of the explanatory variables, and eij is a random error term. Questionnaire answers on job future opportunities and recognition from leaders are only available for the 2000 cross-section. The estimation method is maximum likelihood and the statistical computer programs used were SAS 8. 2 and STATA 9. 0, the logit occasion and the clogit procedure. Results are presented as factor changes in betting odds, expressing the increase in the odds of being in the group having a high degree of job satisfaction, for a one point, or level, increase in the explanatory variable. 4. ResultsIn this section we present the empirical results based on four sets of analyses. (1) Preliminary regression analyses on gender differences. (2) Main results Estimating the luck of the outcomes being highly satis? ed with the job and being dissatis? ed with the job using conditional likelihood estimation. (3) An ordinary logistic regression analysis using only data from 2000 with addition of recognition from leaders and future job opportunities to the model. This model is used for predicting the hazard of having a high level of job satisfaction when rewards are optimized and work environment factors are at unfavourable levels. 4) A fourth part and last analysis has the purpose of validation of the question on job satisfaction and consists of a regression where job satisfaction as response variable is substituted by a question on the degree of motivation and engagement in ones work. 4. 1 Preliminary analyses on gender differences Initially, tests for gender interaction effects are performed. For private-sector employees, social support shows both a signi? slang term gender effect and a general effect on job satisfaction. For public-sector employees job warrantor indicates a signi? ant gender effect and a general effect. In both cases being a woman increases the impact on the level of job satisfaction. The gender interaction effects are veri? ed when running separate regressions on genders still using the division on sectors. The results can be seen in Appendix B. Due to the loss of observations when using ? xed effects regressions these regressions are run on only the 2000 cross-section using ordinary logistic regression on the outcome being highly satis? ed. A few results turn out to be gender speci? only for publicly employed men, having no education above high school level lowers the fortune of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position increases the opportunity of high job satisfaction signi? money boxly. For publicly employed women only, the unemployment rate is signi? cantly and inversely related to the level of job satisfaction. Job security is signi? cant as suggested by the found interaction effects. For privately employed men and women, gender-speci? c effects are in? uence that increases the 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal probability of high job satisfaction for men, job security that increases the likelihood of job satisfaction for women, and being exposed to aggression at the work place, which is only signi? cant for women. Moreover, the coef? cient of social support is larger for women than for men corresponding to the results of the gender analysis. In regard to wages, the effect is large and positive for both privately employed men and privately employed women but nonsigni? cant for both genders within the public sector.As discussed in the statistical analysis sec tion multicollinarity existed between education in years and wage. Therefore educational levels are entered as separate variables to the model. Ultimately, only having no further education beyond high school and having a short further education were statistically signi? cant (p < 0. 05) and these levels are therefore kept in the model. 4. 2 Results using conditional likelihood on the combined panel of data from 1995 and 2000 The gender interaction effects found and the two variables representing educational level are now entered in the ? al model. The results are shown in Table 2. The left section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction and the right section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a low level of job satisfaction, the latter in order to test for a duality in the impacts on job satisfaction as discussed in Section 2. Looking ? rst at the results for the economic and de mographic measures, the odds of being in the high job satisfaction home are reduced with one-? th for every additional child for private employees, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 077). This result is matched in the public sector, in the way that the odds of having a low level of job satisfaction triple for an additional child. For privatesector employees, having no more than a high school education, opposed to having an educational level above high school, n archaean triples the odds of being in the high job satisfaction menage and also reduces the odds of being in the low job satisfaction form, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? ant (p = 0. 063). Having a fair length or short further education nearly halves the odds of being highly satis? ed with ones job. Educational level does not show any effects of signi? cance for public-sector employees. High tenure raises the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category for publi c-sector employees, a result not matched elsewhere. Within both sectors, the level of job satisfaction seems to be related to the size of the unemployment rate, and the scope of this relation is similar for private and public employees.The sizes of the odds indicate an 8. 3 per cent drop-off in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for private-sector employees and a 9 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for public-sector employees. In regard to occupational health factors, the public and the private sector have four factors in common role con? cts nearly halves the odds of being in the high satisfaction category in both sectors, odd work positions decrease the odds of being in the high satisfaction category for private employees by one-third, and for public employees by nearly one-half. Increasing the level of information that concerns the work place raises the odds of being highly satis? ed by 71 per cent for privately employed and by 91 per cent for publicly employed workers. For each increase in the level of social support, the odds of being highly satis? ed increase by 58 per cent and 31 per cent, respectively. For public employees, increasing the level of in? ence increases the odds of being highly satis? ed with the job by 71 per cent, and having foreseeable job security above 12 months nearly duplicate the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category. For private-sector 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1. 061 0. 811(*) 2. 881* 0. 558* 1. 009 1. 349 0. 917* 0. 525* 0. 681* 1. 045 0. 965 1. 532 1. 709* 0. 537* 1. 576* 0. 973 1. 246* 1. 698(*) 0. 755* 0. 6741. 672 0. 6431. 023 1. 3426. 186 0. 3590. 868 0. 9781. 040 0. 7072. 573 0. 8760. 960 0. 3030. 907 0. 5140. 903 0. 8491. 292 0. 4462. 091 0. 9042. 596 1. 3802. 116 0. 3980. 23 1. 2571. 978 0. 5551. 705 1. 1031. 409 0. 9902. 913 0. 5750. 992 CI 1. 310 1. 047 0. 497 0. 796 0. 974 0. 460 0. 910* 0. 739 0. 579* 1. 710* 0. 595 2. 042(*) 1. 906* 0. 525* 1. 309* 0. 936 1. 035 1. 386 0. 150* OR ? xed 0. 6392. 682 0. 7551. 452 0. 1531. 618 0. 4311. 472 0. 9321. 019 0. 1501. 417 0. 8580. 965 0. 3461. 576 0. 3580. 935 1. 1422. 559 0. 0586. 084 0. 8914. 680 1. 3552. 681 0. 3370. 817 1. 0921. 569 0. 5521. 589 0. 8501. 260 0. 4634. 154 0. 0270. 825 CI Public (Reg. 2) 1. 379 0. 803 0. 062(*) 0. 414 1. 046 3. 378 1. 006 3. 843* 1. 238 1. 943* 4. 482* 3. 012* 2. 112* 2. 247(*) 1. 496* . 825 0. 913 1. 176 OR ? xed 0. 3605. 274 0. 3941. 639 0. 0031. 157 0. 0852. 022 0. 9511. 150 0. 32035. 729 0. 9061. 116 1. 23811. 926 0. 6532. 347 1. 1763. 212 1. 42514. 091 1. 0168. 933 1. 2223. 650 0. 9495. 320 1. 0592. 114 0. 6794. 902 0. 6411. 300 0. 2755. 038 CI Private (Reg. 3) b 0. 744 3. 396* 11. 731 2. 327 1. 195* 0. 061 1. 017 0. 358 1. 250 3. 186(*) 0. 727 0. 939 2. 052(*) 1. 152 1. 586(*) 4. 557(*) 0. 805 1. 7 66 OR ? xed 0. 1403. 948 1. 04910. 993 0. 469293. 833 0. 38314. 120 1. 0251. 395 0. 0 0. 8611. 202 0. 0462. 809 0. 5732. 724 0. 97510. 409 0. 0717. 497 0. 1276. 940 0. 964. 699 0. 3483. 819 0. 9362. 689 0. 96221. 598 0. 3721. 740 0. 16019. 521 CI Public (Reg. 4) Low job satisfactionc Dichotomous variables. Gender interaction effects Male = 1. c Scales are reversed for in? uence, job security, information, social support, and ? exible hours when estimating job dissatisfaction. CI 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels(*) 0. 05 < p < 0. 10, * 0. 0000 < p < 0. 05. reduce of observations Reg. 1 = 1,200, Reg. 2 = 650, Reg. 3 = 282, Reg. 4 = 128. -log (Likelihood) Reg. 1 = 317. 1, Reg. 2 = 172. 6, Reg. 3 = 50. 8, Reg. 4 = 27. 3. Pseudo R2s Reg. 1 = 0. 24, Reg. 2 = 0. 3, Reg. 3 = 0. 48, and Reg. 4 = 0. 38. a Cohabitinga spell of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. I n? uence 4. Low controlhigh demand 5. Job security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. expose to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr Male social supportb Male job securityb OR ? xed Private (Reg. 1) High job satisfaction Table 2. Results from conditional logistic regression, when estimating the probability of being highly satis? ed with ones job and being dissatis? ed with ones job.Divided on private-sector and public-sector employees Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 11 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 12 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal employees, three additional factors have signi? cant impacts on the probability of being highly satis? ed with ones job noise halves the odds of having the highest level of job satisfaction more ? exible working hours increase the odds of being highly satis? ed by 25 per cent and ? nally the odds of log pay suggest that when log pay is increased by one unit the odds o f being in the high satisfaction category increase by nearly 70 per cent.The effect is borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 054). Comparing the results from the conditional likelihood estimation with the results from the ordinary logistic regression analyses (as shown in Appendix B), a few discrepancies emerge for publicly employed men having no more than a high school education lowers the probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position raises the probability of a high level of job satisfaction using ordinary regression analysis only. In? uence raises the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly for privately employed men but not when using ? ed effects analyses. For public employees, being exposed to aggression at the work place lowers the probability of high job satisfaction when using ordinary logistic regression analysis and the corresponding result from the ? xed effects regression is an increase in the probability of dissatisfaction when being exposed to con? icts. For private employees odd work positions only show an effect in the ? xed effects analysis. Looking at the results of predicting being dissatis? ed with ones job several factors impact on the probability of both having a high degree of job satisfaction and being dissatis? d with the job. This is the case in the private sector for noise, information, role con? icts, and social support, and in the public sector for in? uence, information, and social support. On the other hand, being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, or having a job with low control in combination with high demands only has an impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed with the job. 4. 3 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job avocation the results from the regressions presented in the previous sections, pay is only a signi? ant prognosticator of having a high level of job satisfaction in the private sector, and did not seem to have any impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed. Within both labour economic studies and work psychology, future opportunities and recognition are also considered as rewards of work. As additional information is available on future opportunities and recognition in data from 2000, the following analysis incorporates all three types of rewards. In addition, people were asked in 1995 what they considered to be the most important aspect of their work.Of the three possible answers, 11. 2 per cent answered that the pay was good (6. 0 per cent in the public sector and 14. 8 per cent in the private sector), 58. 0 per cent answered that the work interested them (65. 6 per cent in the public sector and 52. 7 per cent in the private sector), and 30. 8 per cent answered that they got along well with colleagues (28. 4 per cent in the public sector and 32. 4 per cent in the private sector). The differences among public and private employees with regard to pay support the evidenc e from our analyses.However the results also suggest that alternative rewards may be considered although the capability of these rewards to compensate for hazards in the work environment is more uncertain. The second question we have sought to investigate is whether employees exposed to hazards at work for which they receive above average rewards, when comparing with employees in non-hazardous work with average rewards, report the same level of job satisfaction. This was achieved by gist of calculations of predicted probabilities. The factors tested were signi? ant predictors of both having a high level of job satisfaction and being dissatis? ed with the 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 13 job. Initially, a regression on the 2000 cohort integrating recognition from leaders and future possibilities in the model was performed. The results from this regression are shown in Appendix C. The hazards anal ysed for private-sector employees are high noise, low levels of information and social support, and role con? icts. For the public sector, low levels of information, in? ence, and social support are chosen. The results from varying the levels of these variables from their best, to their worst case, and at the same time maximizing the three types of rewards are shown in Table 3. The values in column 2 express the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six chosen work environment factors are in their most positive position and all other variables are held constant at the mean. Column 3 shows the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six hazards is at the most negative level.Columns 4, 5 and 6 give the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when the individual factors are at the worst case, single rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. Having the lowest level of information gives t he lowest probability of having a high degree of job satisfaction observed for private-sector employees (0. 62). For public-sector employees the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job when information is at the lowest level is 0. 56. This is the case when all other variables are held at an average level.Moreover, the probability of being highly satis? ed with ones job never exceeds 0. 75 as long as information is low, which is below both 0. 81 and 0. 79, the average probabilities of being highly satis? ed with the job within the public and the private sector. Low in? uence predicts the lowest probability of a high level of job satisfaction for publicsector employees, which is 0. 56. In this case it is not possible to reach the same level of job satisfaction when having the lowest possible level of in? uence, as compared with those experiencing a high level of in? uence even if receiving maximum rewards.The same is evident for social support for employees in both sectors. In contrast, the impacts of high noise or experiencing role con? icts on the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction are, however, neutralized by either the highest level of leader recognition or future opportunities, or a high wage, being among the best-paid 2 per cent in the sample. 4. 4 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly motivated in the job The analysis made in Section 4. 3 is repeated now predicting the probability of having the highest level of motivation when the levels of in? ence, social support, and information are at their worst, individual rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. The results of this regression are shown in Appendix D. Table 4 is analogous with Table 3. The results in Table 4 are consistent with the results in Table 3, take out that receiving the highest level of leader recognition now seems to compensate privately employed for a low level of social support. 5. Discussion The wa y work environmental and socio-economic factors related to job satisfaction was not only in terms of either increasing job satisfaction or not, i. e. eing motivational factors or not. Thus in line with Herzberg et al. s (1959) theory some job factors also function as maintenance factors that are only being capable of making employees dissatis? ed with the job. In addition to this, some factors only had the impact of cloggy the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job. These could be characterized as inconvenience factors with an unsettling effect on the motivation factors. 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0. 713 0. 618 0. 727 0. 736 0. 563 0. 754 0. 598 . 798 0. 825 0. 881 0. 812 P(High JS) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 838 0. 879 0. 829 0. 520 0. 721 0. 556 0. 804 0. 727 0. 814 0. 821 P(High JS) when Pay is at maximum, X at its wor st, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 701 0. 848 0. 730 0. 817 0. 743 0. 827 0. 834 P(High JS) when Leader Recognition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 717 0. 858 0. 746 0. 815 0. 741 0. 825 0. 832 P(High JS) when emerging Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Probability of high Job Satisfaction for private employees when all variables at their mean 0. 901. Probability of high Job Satisfaction for public employees when all variables at their mean 0. 8052. Leader recognition is at its highest when the employee has answered To a very high degree when asked Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the caution? and future opportunities are maximized when the employee has answered To a very high degree when asked are the future prospects of your job good? . Private sector Noise Information Social support Role con? ict Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High JS) when X is optimal and the rest of the facto rs at heir means Table 3. Probability of a high level of Job Satisfaction (JS) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X) 14 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal 0. 268 0. 320 0. 338 0. 408 0. 161 0. 396 0. 467 P(High M) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 474 0. 532 0. 507 0. 380 0. 453 0. 187 0. 299 0. 353 P(High M) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 443 0. 518 0. 230 0. 414 0. 476 P(High M) when Leader Recognition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 448 0. 523 0. 233 0. 356 0. 415 P(High M) hen Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Notes Motivation is at its highest when the employee has answered Yes, indeed when asked Do you feel motivated and engaged in your work? 39. 2% of the private employees and 46. 3% of the public employees answer Yes, indeed. Private sector Information Social support Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(H igh M) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at their means Table 4. Probability of a high level of motivation (M) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X)Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 15 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 16 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal While adding to the credibility of results, many respondents unfortunately are lost when using conditional likelihood estimation as those with none changing characteristics are dropped from the analysis. When comparing the results of the ordinary regression analyses with the results using conditional likelihood estimation it did not seem that controlling for ? xed effects alters results in regard to the subjective measures used.A possible explanation is that most answers are put as frequencies of motion-picture show during working hours leaving less room for misconceptions of the questions. About two-thirds of the results on work environment variables were common for public- and private-sector employees, with effects of just about the same size. Common factors were odd work positions and role con? ict, both factors lowering the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction, and information on decisions that concerns the work place and social support, of which higher levels predicted being highly satis? d with the job and lower levels predicted job dissatisfaction. Factors being speci? c for the private sector were noise and a combination of low control and high demands, whereas picture to aggression at the work place and level of in? uence only seemed to have an effect on public employees. Being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, and having a job with low control in combination with high demands are examples of maintenance factors as the extent of their impact is con? ned to negative outcomes.In accordance with our results, public employees have been shown to have an increased risk of experiencing con? icts , teasing, or threats of violence at work (see Hoegh, 2005) whereas jobs with low control and high demands are typically found on industrial work sites within the private sector. In testing the ameliorative capability of rewards to compensate for the negative effects on job satisfaction deriving from exposure to (primarily psychosocial) hazards in the work environment, our results indicated only a limited effect for this type of compensating differential.In particular, rewards could not neutralize the effects on job satisfaction when employees have low levels of information on decisions that concerns the work place, social support, or, as a result for public employees only, in? uence. Most previous studies searching for evidence of compensating wage differentials for work environment hazards have been concerned with observable occupational health hazards (see Rosen, 1986), an exception being for very stressful work (French and Dunlap, 1998). The results were duplicated and even more pronounced when the analysis was repeated substituting job satisfaction with motivation.Where the same member of public employees and private employees reported being highly satis? ed with the job, there was a discrepancy among the two sectors when comparing the fraction of employees reporting to be highly motivated. Thirty-nine per cent of the private employees and 46 per cent of the public employees reported to be the highly motivated. These results also correspond to the result that more public than private employees report that the most important aspect of their work was that the work interested them (66 per cent versus 53 per cent).The differences are small but the results support the theory that public employees should have higher intrinsic motivation (Benabou and Tirole, 2006). As wages did not show any signi? cant impact on the level of job satisfaction for public employees and neither had any signi? cant compensating value in regard to certain hazards at the job, the resu lts also point to that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards as also seen in Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000).Very low probabilities of having a high level of job satisfaction (0. 56) and being highly motivated at the job (0. 16) were evident for public employees with the lowest level of in? uence. This clearly suggests that lack of in? uence can demotivate public employees and points to that 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 17 intrinsic motivation can be undermined if people feel controlled, and have little autonomy and freedom in performing work tasks (Deci and Ryan, 1985).Moreover, in the long run, lack of autonomy can pose a threat to value congruence between the employees and the organization, as suggested by Ren (2010). In regard to the results concerning gender differences, job security showed a general positive eff ect on job satisfaction as well as a gender-speci? c effect for employees in the public sector, suggesting women pursue job security more than men. For private employees, any effect of job insecurity would be dissatisfaction with the job and the size of the effect was just about the same for the two genders.In a study by DAddio et al. (2003), job security was found to have the same effect for men and women after adjusting for ? xed effects. Without adjusting for ? xed effects, men seemingly valued job security the most. In the study by Clark et al. (1998), they ? nd that the extent to which women or men pursue job security varies among countries and that the differences are relatively small. These other studies have split the analyses on gender, which complicates comparison, and the differing time span of years over which the observations are made most ikely has an effect too. Clark et al. (1998) also ? nd that women report having good relations at work more often than men. Whereas Sloane and Williams (2000) ? nd that good social relations are most important for women. This is consistent with our ? nding that among private employees, women value social support more than men. The impact on job satisfaction from wages may also re? ect an effect of satisfaction with the job that derives from increased total expenditure opportunities as the question on job satisfaction in our study is one that re? cts overall job satisfaction. The results may also be dependent on the given wage structure as both wages and wages scatter are lower within the public sector than within the private sector in Denmark at the time (Wadensjo, 1996). Finally, the impact on job satisfaction from the unemployment rate is large. DAddio et al. (2003) found a similar negative correlation between job satisfaction and the rate of unemployment. In both the study by DAddio et al. (2003) and our study, this relation is only signi? cant after controlling for ? xed effects.That is, apart from the res ult when making a separate analysis on gender and sector. It is noteworthy that the unemployment rate has these clear derived effects on the subjective feelings towards the job. According to the studies by Akerlof et al. (1988), a low unemployment rate makes it possible for unsatis? ed employees to change to jobs with more desired characteristics. Appendix A hark of work environment variables 1. Noise Two levels according to answer to the below 3/4 or more of the work day being exposed to noise that high that one must raise the voice to be able to speak with others. . Odd work positions A pull in with a one point increase when respondents have marked a positive answer to the following questions 3/4 or more of the working hours the work entails work with 1. The back heavily bended forward with no support for hands or arms. 2. The body twisted or bended in the same way several times an hour. 3. The hands lifted to shoulder height or higher. 4. The neck heavily bended forward. 5. Sq uatting or kneeling. 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 18 Lea Sell Bryan Cleal 3. In? uence Four levels Can you plan your own work? 4.Low controlhigh strain In? uence Four levels Can you plan your own work? Job variation Four levels Is your job varied? Time pressure Recoded into two levels 1995 Does your work entail that you have to work under time pressure in order to get certain pieces of work do? 2000 Is it necessary to work very fast? Mental demands Does your work demand all your attention and concentration? 5. Job security Two levels according to (1995) Certain or pretty sure of keeping the job the close 12 months. (2000) The present job is not a ? xed-term appointment with less than 12 months left. . Information Four levels Are you informed about decisions that concern your work place? 7. Unclearness of role and con? icting demands Two levels according to the comply or not of either of two statements It is clear what my responsibility. I experience con? icting demands in my work. 8. Social support (four levels No support, always support from colleagues but not always from superiors, always support from superiors but not always from colleagues, always support from colleagues and superiors) 1995 Do you receive help and encouragement from your superior/colleagues? 000 How often do you receive help and support from superior or colleagues? 9. Con? icts, teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats, or violence (two levels) 1995 Are you exposed to any form of unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or violence at your work place? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a no) 2000 Have you been exposed to unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or physical violence at your work place within the last 12 months? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a no) 10.Flexibility of work memorial Four levels according to the time space within a respondent can vary the daily working schedule without giving further notice. Can you change the placing of your working hours from day to day without making prearrangements, e. g. check at work late or leave work early? 11. Recognition Four levels Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the counsel? 12. Future opportunities Four levels Are the future prospects of your work good? 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 19Appendix B Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data. Divided on gender Men Private (Reg. 1) Women Public (Reg. 2) Private (Reg. 3) Public (Reg. 4) Coef. Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low controlhigh demand 5. Job security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln k r ideal error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error 0. 258 -0. 067 0. 237 0. 437* 0. 010 0. 181 -0. 011 -0. 587* -0. 176 0. 244* -0. 658 0. 087 0. 475* -0. 626* 0. 371* -0. 294 0. 175* 0. 639* 0. 1896 0. 0728 0. 1999 0. 1916 0. 0086 0. 2451 0. 0295 0. 2142 0. 1062 0. 0906 0. 4282 0. 3488 0. 0926 0. 1441 0. 0678 0. 2811 0. 0528 0. 2705 0. 1700 -0. 078 -0. 638* 0. 060 -0. 004 0. 743* 0. 010 0. 104 -0. 493* 0. 395* -0. 919 -0. 292 0. 759* -0. 578* 0. 314* -0. 732* 0. 143 0. 066 0. 2248 0. 0860 0. 2592 0. 1890 0. 0093 0. 3642 0. 0223 0. 2853 0. 1827 0. 1190 0. 6509 0. 2948 0. 1206 0. 1632 0. 0742 0. 1916 0. 0598 0. 2794 0. 307 -0. 026 0. 286 -0. 481* 0. 006 0. 348 0. 021 -0. 529(*) -0. 26 0. 121 -0. 991 0. 469* 0. 607* -0. 435* 0. 459 -0. 348* 0. 171* 0. 611* 0. 2327 0. 1004 0. 2709 0. 2177 0. 0109 0. 5299 0. 0369 0. 2808 0. 1476 0. 1252 0. 5711 0. 3909 0. 1390 0. 2099 0. 0856 0. 2922 0. 0685 0. 2802 0. 167 -0. 015 -0. 117 -0. 1656 0. 010 -0. 267 -0. 029* -0. 0 44 -0. 380* 0. 247* -0. 003 0. 369* 0. 623* -0. 542* 0. 362* -0. 335* 0. 104* -0. 092 0. 1477 0. 0612 0. 1804 0. 1349 0. 0070 0. 2914 0. 0139 0. 1963 0. 1126 0. 0880 0. 5338 0. 1888 0. 0896 0. 1212 0. 0508 0. 1397 0. 0471 0. 2195 a Dichotomous variables. CI 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels (*) 0. 05 < p < 0. 10, * 0. 000 < p < 0. 05. Number of observations Reg. 1 = 1,356, Reg. 2 = 959, Reg. 3 = 728, Reg. 4 = 1,754. -log (Likelihood) Reg. 1 = 639. 3, Reg. 2 = 483. 2, Reg. 3 = 363. 1, Reg. 4 = 907. 1. Pseudo R2s Reg. 1 = 0. 17, Reg. 2 = 0. 18, Reg. 3 = 0. 17, and Reg. 4 = 0. 13. Appendix C Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data (Reg. 1) (Reg. 2) Private (N = 2,057) Public (N = 1,296) OR Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low controlhigh strain . Job security 1 yeara 6. Information P>z CI lower CI higher OR P>z CI lower CI higher 1. 358 0. 934 1. 361 0. 653 1. 016 1. 252 1. 006 0. 628 0. 845 1. 121 0. 464 1. 186 1. 430 0. 042 0. 263 0. 064 0. 004 0. 024 0. 323 0. 796 0. 008 0. 058 0. 139 0. 033 0. 535 0. 000 1. 011 0. 829 0. 982 0. 488 1. 002 0. 802